Aleppo oak | |
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Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Rosids |
Order: | Fagales |
Family: | Fagaceae |
Genus: | Quercus |
Subgenus: | Quercus subg. Quercus |
Section: | Quercus sect. Quercus |
Species: | Q. infectoria |
Binomial name | |
Quercus infectoria Oliv. 1801 | |
Synonyms [1] [2] | |
List
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[ citation needed ]Quercus infectoria or the Aleppo oak is a species of oak well known for producing galls (called manjakani in Malaysia, majuphal in India) that have been traditionally used for centuries in Asia medicinally while also used in softening leather and in making black dye and ink. [3]
Quercus infectoria is a small tree, growing to 1 to 2 metres (4 to 6 feet) in height.[ citation needed ] The stems are crooked, shrubby looking with smooth and bright-green leaves borne on short petioles of 3–4 centimetres (1+1⁄4–1+1⁄2 inches) long. The leaves are bluntly mucronate, rounded, smooth, unequal at the base and shiny on the upper side.
The galls arise on young branches of the tree when gall wasps [4] sting the oak tree and deposit their larvae. The chemical reaction causes an abnormality in the tree, causing hard balls to be formed. They are corrugated in appearance.
The galls from Quercus infectoria contain the highest naturally occurring level of tannin, approximately 50–70%, [5] as well as syringic acid, β-sitosterol, amentoflavone, hexamethyl ether, isocryptomerin, methyl betulate, methyl oleanate and hexagalloyl glucose. [6] [7] [5] [8] They also contain 2–4% each of gallic and ellagic acid that are polymerized to make tannins. [9] [10] [11] Tannins have been used for hundreds of years for medical purposes and are currently indispensable in dermatology [12] and have been used for tanning of leather.
Tannins comprise a large group of natural products widely distributed in the plant kingdom. They have a great structural diversity, but are usually divided into two basic groups: the hydrolyzable type and the condensed type. Hydrolyzable tannins include the commonly occurring gallic and ellagic acid contained in the nut galls.
Hydrolyzable tannins are present in many different plant species but are found in particularly high concentrations in nut galls growing on Rhus semialata (Chinese and Korean gallotannins) and Quercus infectoria (Turkish and Chinese gallotannins), the seedpods of Caesalpinia spinosa (Tara tannins), and the fruits of Terminalia chebula . The gallic and ellagic acid hydrolyzable tannins react with proteins to produce typical tanning effects; medicinally, this is important to topically treat inflamed or ulcerated tissues. They also contribute to most of the astringent property of manjakani and in small insignificant doses, are great for skin whitening and killing microorganisms.
Although both types of tannin have been used to treat diseases in traditional medicine, the hydrolyzable tannins have long been considered official medicinal agents in Europe and North America. They have been included in many pharmacopoeias, in the older editions in particular, and are specifically referred to as tannic acid. These were recommended for treatment of inflammation and ulceration, including topical application for skin diseases and internal use for intestinal ulceration and diarrhea. In China, tannin-containing substances, such as galls, pomegranate rinds, and terminalia fruits, are used in several medicinal preparations.
Quercus infectoria is indigenous to parts of southern Europe (Greece and the East Aegean Islands) and the Middle East (Turkey, Cyprus, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, Israel and Jordan). [13]
The galls of Quercus infectoria have also been pharmacologically documented to possess astringent, antidiabetic, [14] antitremorine, local anaesthetic, [15] antiviral, [16] antibacterial, [17] antifungal, [18] larvicidal [19] and anti-inflammatory [20] activities. The main constituents found in the galls of Quercus infectoria are tannin (50-70%) and small amount of free gallic acid and ellagic acid. [21] [22] [23]
The wide range of pharmacological activities of this plant might support the efficacy of extract preparation of Quercus infectoria that are widely used in Malaysia for treating many kinds of health problems since many decades ago. The nutgalls have been pharmacologically documented on their antiamoebic, [24] anticariogenic [25] and anti-inflammatory [26] activities, to treat skin infections and gastrointestinal disorders. [26] [25] [27] [28]
Quercus infectoria can be used as a thickener in stews or mixed with cereals for making bread. [29]
Also known as Majuphal in Indian traditional medicine, manjakani has been used as dental powder and in the treatment of toothache and gingivitis. [30] [31]
The so-called "Aleppo tannin" is Tannic acid gained from Aleppo oak galls, which displays unique chemical properties essential in the preparation of gold sols (colloids) used as markers in Immunocytochemistry. [32] [33]
Nowadays, gallnut extracts are also widely used in pharmaceuticals, food and feed additives, dyes, inks, and metallurgy.
Gall nut extracts are widely used in pharmaceuticals, medical laboratory techniques as well as inks which use "Aleppo tannin", [34] food and feed additives, dyes, and metallurgy.
Tannin, a substance contained in the galls of the Quercus infectoria, has been used for centuries for the tanning of leather.
The so-called "Aleppo tannin" is tannic acid gained from Aleppo pine galls, which displays unique chemical properties essential in the preparation of gold sols (colloids) used as markers in immunocytochemistry. [35] [36]
Also known as majuphal in Indian traditional medicine, manjakani has been used as dental powder and in the treatment of toothache and gingivitis. [37] [38]
The galls, locally known as manjakani in Malaysia, are used in combination with other herbs as drinking remedies by women after childbirth to restore the elasticity of the uterine wall, and in many vaginal tightening products. [39] The extract of manjakani was claimed by the Malay Kelantanese to be highly beneficial for postpartum women. Hazardous effects of the extract were not reported so far. In addition, the Arabs, Persians, Indians, Malays and Chinese have traditionally used the galls after childbirth to treat vaginal discharge and related postpartum infections.
Tannins are a class of astringent, polyphenolic biomolecules that bind to and precipitate proteins and various other organic compounds including amino acids and alkaloids.
Gallic acid (also known as 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic acid) is a trihydroxybenzoic acid with the formula C6H2(OH)3CO2H. It is classified as a phenolic acid. It is found in gallnuts, sumac, witch hazel, tea leaves, oak bark, and other plants. It is a white solid, although samples are typically brown owing to partial oxidation. Salts and esters of gallic acid are termed "gallates".
Polyphenols are a large family of naturally occurring phenols. They are abundant in plants and structurally diverse. Polyphenols include phenolic acids, flavonoids, tannic acid, and ellagitannin, some of which have been used historically as dyes and for tanning garments.
Tannic acid is a specific form of tannin, a type of polyphenol. Its weak acidity (pKa around 6) is due to the numerous phenol groups in the structure. The chemical formula for commercial tannic acid is often given as C76H52O46, which corresponds with decagalloyl glucose, but in fact it is a mixture of polygalloyl glucoses or polygalloyl quinic acid esters with the number of galloyl moieties per molecule ranging from 2 up to 12 depending on the plant source used to extract the tannic acid. Commercial tannic acid is usually extracted from any of the following plant parts: Tara pods (Caesalpinia spinosa), gallnuts from Rhus semialata or Quercus infectoria or Sicilian sumac leaves (Rhus coriaria).
Mimosa tenuiflora, syn. Mimosa hostilis, also known as jurema preta, calumbi (Brazil), tepezcohuite (México), carbonal, cabrera, jurema, black jurema, and binho de jurema, is a perennial tree or shrub native to the northeastern region of Brazil and found as far north as southern Mexico, and the following countries: El Salvador, Honduras, Panama, Colombia and Venezuela. It is most often found in lower altitudes, but it can be found as high as 1,000 m (3,300 ft).
Euphorbia helioscopia, the sun spurge or madwoman's milk, is a species of flowering plant in the spurge family Euphorbiaceae. It is a herbaceous annual plant, native to most of Europe, northern Africa, and eastward through most of Asia.
Ellagic acid is a polyphenol found in numerous fruits and vegetables. It is the dilactone of hexahydroxydiphenic acid.
Punicalagin (Pyuni-cala-jen) is an ellagitannin, a type of phenolic compound. It is found as alpha and beta isomers in pomegranates, Terminalia catappa, Terminalia myriocarpa, and in Combretum molle, the velvet bushwillow, a plant species found in South Africa. These three genera are all Myrtales and the last two are both Combretaceae.
Terminalia chebula, commonly known as black- or chebulic myrobalan, is a species of Terminalia, native to South Asia from Pakistan, India and Nepal east to southwest China (Yunnan), and south to Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Vietnam.
The enzyme tannase (EC 3.1.1.20) catalyzes the following reaction:
The phenolic content in wine refers to the phenolic compounds—natural phenol and polyphenols—in wine, which include a large group of several hundred chemical compounds that affect the taste, color and mouthfeel of wine. These compounds include phenolic acids, stilbenoids, flavonols, dihydroflavonols, anthocyanins, flavanol monomers (catechins) and flavanol polymers (proanthocyanidins). This large group of natural phenols can be broadly separated into two categories, flavonoids and non-flavonoids. Flavonoids include the anthocyanins and tannins which contribute to the color and mouthfeel of the wine. The non-flavonoids include the stilbenoids such as resveratrol and phenolic acids such as benzoic, caffeic and cinnamic acids.
A hydrolysable tannin or pyrogallol-type tannin is a type of tannin that, on heating with hydrochloric or sulfuric acids, yields gallic or ellagic acids.
The ellagitannins are a diverse class of hydrolyzable tannins, a type of polyphenol formed primarily from the oxidative linkage of galloyl groups in 1,2,3,4,6-pentagalloyl glucose. Ellagitannins differ from gallotannins, in that their galloyl groups are linked through C-C bonds, whereas the galloyl groups in gallotannins are linked by depside bonds.
Condensed tannins are polymers formed by the condensation of flavans. They do not contain sugar residues.
Rhus chinensis, the Chinese sumac or nutgall tree, is a deciduous shrub or small tree in the genus Rhus. Growing to 6 m (20 ft) tall, it has downy shoots and leaves comprising several leaflets. These turn red in autumn before falling.
Biflavonoids are a type of flavonoids with the general formula scheme (C6-C3-C6)2.
Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides, also called Senegal prickly-ash or artar root, is a plant species in the genus Zanthoxylum.
Tergallic acids are trimers of gallic acid, often found naturally in the form of glycosides. Tergallic acid O- or C-glucosides that can be found in acorns of several Quercus (oak) species. The dehydrated tergallic acid C-glucoside and tergallic acid O-glucoside can be characterised in the acorns of Quercus macrocarpa. Dehydrated tergallic-C-glucoside can be found in the cork from Quercus suber.
Luteic acid is a natural phenol found in numerous fruits. It is a monolactonized tergalloyl group. Maximilian Nierenstein showed in 1945 that luteic acid was a molecule present in the myrobalanitannin, a tannin found in the fruit of Terminalia chebula and is an intermediary compound in the synthesis of ellagic acid. It can form from hexahydroxydiphenic acid. It is also present in the structure of the tannins alnusiin and bicornin.
Terminalia macroptera is a species of flowering plant in the Combretaceae known by the Hausa common name kwandari. It is native to Africa, where it can be found in Benin, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Senegal, Sudan, Uganda, and Nigeria.
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