Ramalina peruviana

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Ramalina peruviana
Ramalina peruviana.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Ascomycota
Class: Lecanoromycetes
Order: Lecanorales
Family: Ramalinaceae
Genus: Ramalina
Species:
R. peruviana
Binomial name
Ramalina peruviana
Ach. (1810)
Synonyms [1]
List
  • Lichen squarrosus * peruviana(Ach.) Lam. (1813)
  • Desmazieria peruviana(Ach.) Follmann & Huneck (1969)
  • Ramalina pumila subsp. javanica Nyl. (1870)
  • Ramalina javanica(Nyl.) Zahlbr. (1930)
  • Fistulariella javanica(Nyl.) Bowler & Rundel (1977)
  • Ramalina farinacea var. dendroides Müll.Arg. (1883)
  • Ramalina farinacea var. squarrosaMüll.Arg. (1883)
  • Ramalina farinacea f. squarrosa(Müll.Arg.) Stizenb. (1890)
  • Ramalina roesleri var. isidiotyla Vain. (1924)
  • Ramalina crispansWerner (1977)
  • Ramalina hyrcana Sipman (2011)

Ramalina peruviana is a species of fruticose lichen in the family Ramalinaceae with a pantropical distribution. The lichen was first formally described by Erik Acharius in 1810, who wrote of its flat, compressed, branching thallus with narrow, undulating branches. It typically occurs on the bark of trees (corticolous) although occasionally it grows on rocks (saxicolous). Ramalina peruviana is widely distributed, found in subtropical and warm temperate regions across several continents. It has been recorded in diverse locations such as Pacific Islands, the southern United States, East Africa, Asia, Australasia, and South America. Its presence has been documented in specific habitats like mangroves in Australia and on certain tree species in Taiwan and China, where it thrives at higher elevations.

Contents

The lichen has an intricately branched and tufted thallus, greyish-green to yellowish-green in colour. The branches are rounded or irregularly thickened, and dotted with soralia (granular reproductive particles). Occasionally, the thallus surface has tiny pores for air exchange, known as pseudocyphellae. Apothecia (fruiting bodies) are rarely made by this species. Ramalina peruviana contains several secondary metabolites (lichen products), and a few novel chemicals have been isolated and identified from this lichen.

Taxonomy

The lichen was first scientifically described in 1810 by the Swedish lichenologist Erik Acharius. In his diagnosis he details a lichen with a flat, compressed, branching, ash-coloured thallus, having narrow, undulating, twisted branches with uneven edges and ends that are torn or somewhat finger-like. He noted it growing in Peru alongside lichens Borrera villosa and Borrera ephebea . He went on to further describe the lichen: [note 1]

The thallus is small, bushy from entangled branches, barely exceeding half an inch in height. The branches and branchlets are very narrow, irregular, varying in width and branching pattern, sometimes narrower at the base, wider at other places, and more expanded when branching again, leading to a non-linear, variously dissected, and partitioned appearance, especially towards the digitately parted tips, where they are thinnest and always flat-compressed, similar above and below, sometimes slightly powdery at the tips". [2]

The taxonomic history of Ramalina peruviana has evolved significantly in the two centuries since its original description by Acharius. Initially identified with a limited set of characteristics, modern microscopy, chemical analyses with thin-layer chromatography, and molecular phylogenetics have expanded its classification framework. [3] The species was hypothesised by Richard Spjut and colleagues (2020) to be distinct from similar records in Southern Europe and Macaronesia, suggesting those belong to Ramalina crispans. [4] The type specimen's precise origin, initially vague, was narrowed down to the Pacific coast of Peru, near Lima, based on associated species and historical context provided by botanists like Mariano Lagasca. Because the original type specimen was too old for DNA sequencing, Harrie Sipman and Ángel Ordaya obtained fresh material from the "locus classicus" in the Lachay National Reserve (Huaura Province, Peru). By sequencing the internal transcribed spacer from these specimens, they demonstrated a well-supported clade with R. crispans and R. hyrcana and were thus able to confirm them as synonyms of R. peruviana. In this analysis, R. polymorpha appeared as a sister taxon. [3]

Description

Ramalina peruviana has a thallus whose colour ranges from a grey-green to yellow-green hue, forming tufted, erect to slightly hanging clusters that can extend from 2 to 6 cm (13⁄16 to 2+3⁄8 in) in length, [5] and up to about 3 cm (1+3⁄16 in) high. [6] The branching of this lichen is intricate, varying from nearly symmetrical divisions ( subdichotomous ) to more irregular formations, with branches measuring between 0.15 and 1.3 mm in width. These branches may present as flat, nearly round (subterete), or round ( terete ) in cross-section, and can sometimes twist slightly, ending in sharp tips. The chondroid tissue (i.e., in cartilage-like central core of the branches) of Ramalina peruviana is not cracked. [5] The cortex measures 15–20  μm thick. [6]

The surface texture of Ramalina peruviana can be either matt or shiny and varies from smooth to wrinkled ( rugose ), with pseudocyphellae—small, porous areas that allow gas exchange—occasionally present. The base of the lichen, or holdfast, may be clearly defined or spread out, especially in denser colonies. One of the distinguishing features of this species is the presence of soralia, which are small structures that produce powdery reproductive particles. These soralia are dot-like ( punctiform ) and can be found along the edges or at the tips of the branches, often giving rise to tiny fibrils. [5] The granular soredia measure 35–50  μm in diameter. [6]

Reproductive structures known as apothecia are rarely observed in Ramalina peruviana; if present, they are located on the margins or sides of the thallus. When they occur, the apothecia have discs ranging from 0.4 to 2.7 mm in diameter, which can be concave to flat and sometimes notched. The ascospores are slender and spindle-shaped ( fusiform ), typically measuring 14.5–17 by 3–6 μm and can be straight or slightly curved. [5]

The photobiont partner of Ramalina peruviana is a member of the green algal genus Trebouxia . It is further characterised as a member of "clade IV", a grouping of Trebouxia found in tropical Ramalina species. [7]

Similar species

Ramalina dendriscoides - Flickr - pellaea.jpg
Ramalina sorediosa - Flickr - pellaea.jpg
Ramalina dendriscoides (right) and R. sorediosa are lookalikes

Ramalina peruviana closely resembles R. dendriscoides in terms of its branching style and subterete branches. The main distinguishing feature of R. peruviana is its predominantly lateral soralia, as opposed to the mostly apical soralia found in R. dendriscoides. Additionally, R. peruviana uniquely produces sekikaic acid, while R. dendriscoides is characterised by the presence of salazinic acid in its composition. [8]

Ramalina hossei is also similar to R. peruviana but can be differentiated by its branches' smoother surface, the presence of cracked chondroid tissue, and its short fusiform spores. Conversely, in R. peruviana, the chondroid tissue remains intact without cracks, and it features narrow fusiform spores. [8] Ramalina peruviana is also similar to R. sorediosa due to their thin branches and overall similar appearance. However, R. peruviana can be distinguished by its irregularly angular to subtly flattened branches, which are never completely round (terete). A key identifying feature of R. peruviana is its fine isidiate branchlets that often emerge from the soralia and are typically found at the tips of the thallus branches. These distinctive branchlets are not present in R. sorediosa. [9]

Chemistry

The results for standard chemical spot tests on Ramalina peruviana are all negative, in both the cortex and medulla. Usnic acid, homosekikaic acid, and sekikaic acid are the three major secondary metabolites (lichen products) that are present in Ramaline peruviana. This combination of substances comprises the so-called sekikaic acid chemosyndrome : sekikaic acid as the major compound, with 4'O-demethylsekikaic and homosekikaic acids as satellite metabolites. The mycobiont (fungus component) of Ramalina peruviana was reported to form sekikaic acid when cultivated in liquid culture medium as it does in the intact lichen, but not associated "satellite" compounds. When grown on a solid culture medium, however, it made the full complement of its chemosyndrome. Unexpectedly, it produced atranorin when in liquid culture, a secondary metabolite it was not known to produce when growing as a lichen with its photobiont. [10]

Sekikaic acid is a major metabolite in Ramalina peruviana. Sekikaic acid.svg
Sekikaic acid is a major metabolite in Ramalina peruviana.

Several other substances are known to occur in the lichen in minor or trace amounts: nonadecan-1-ol; nonadecenoic acid; three monophenolic compounds, rhizonic acid, divarinolmonomethylether, and divaricatinic acid; and two depsides, and decarboxy-2'-O-methyldivaricatic acid. [11] Five triterpene compounds are known to occur in the species: β-amyrone, isoarborinol acetate, hopane-6α,22-diol, hopane-22-ol, hopane-6α,16β,22-triol, along with two ergostane-type sterols, 5α,8α-ergosterol peroxide, and brassicasterol. [12] Three new compounds, named peruvinides A-C, were reported in 2020. [13]

Habitat and distribution

The distribution of Ramalina peruviana extends into subtropical and warm temperate locations. Although typically corticolous (bark-dwelling), it is also known to occasionally grow on rocks (saxicolous), and was once recorded on a wooden fence post. In addition to its country of origin in Peru, the lichen has also been recorded from Africa, Australia, several Pacific Islands, Tristan da Cunha, [14] and Saint Helena. [15] Other South American countries that have recorded the presence of Ramalina peruviana are Brazil, [3] Chile, [16] Ecuador, [9] and Uruguay. [17] It occurs in several of the Cape Verde islands. [18] Its distribution in North America extends north to the southern United States, including central Texas, Georgia, and Florida. [19] Its East African range includes Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. [20] It is also known from Morocco, where it was documented under the name Ramalina crispans. [21]

Although present in New Zealand, it is relatively uncommon. [5] Nearby Pacific locations such as Chatham, Manawatāwhi / Three Kings, [22] Kermadec Islands, [23] and Cook Islands [24] also host this species. In Australia, its grows exclusively corticously, and is most commonly found on the mangrove species Ceriops tagal and Rhizophora stylosa . [14] The environmental conditions in these mangrove communities – including high temperatures, high light intensity, and low humidity – are thought to be ideal for the growth of the lichen. [25] In Taiwan it is locally abundant, particularly on the trunks of Cocos nucifera in the southern part of the country. [26] Its altitudinal range in Chinese habitats spans elevations between 2,000 and 3,450 m (6,560 and 11,320 ft), usually on the bark of Camellia or Rhododendron . [8] Additionally, it is found in Japan and South Korea. [3] In Iran, where it was described under the name Ramalina hyrcana, it is found exclusively in the Hyrcanian forests along the Caspian coast, where it grows on tree trunks and is quite shade tolerant. [27]

Species interactions

Several lichen-associated fungi have isolated from Ramalina peruviana and identified as belonging to the genera Colletotrichum , Daldinia , Hypoxylon , Nemania , Nigrospora , and Xylaria . The resident fungi have a collectively higher antioxidant activity than that of the host lichen, suggesting that the fungi, through the production of antioxidant compounds, might play a protective role in the lichen symbiosis. [28]

Lichenostigma maureri is a lichenicolous fungus that infects Ramalina peruviana. Common in Ecuador and known throughout South America, both sexual and asexual forms of the fungus (the latter known as Phaeosporobolus usneae ) have been found parasitising the lichen in Cajas National Park. [29]

Notes

  1. ↑ Passage translated from Latin by GPT-4.

Related Research Articles

<i>Ramalina</i> Genus of lichenised fungi in the family Ramalinaceae

Ramalina is a genus of greenish fruticose lichens that grow in the form of flattened, strap-like branches. Members of the genus are commonly called strap lichens or cartilage lichens. Apothecia are lecanorine.

Crustospathula is a genus of five species of crustose lichens in the family Malmideaceae. They are characterized by their stalked and sometimes branched cartilaginous soredia and Bacidia-like apothecia.

Vermilacinia, a genus of lichenized fungi in the family Ramalinaceae, is a yellow-green fruticose type of lichen with about 30 species that grow on rocks, trees, and soil within the fog zone along the Pacific Coast of North America and South America. The genus name refers to the thallus being divided into narrow worm-like (vermis) branches (lacinia);the latter part of the name (lacinia) generally applied in descriptions and taxonomic keys such as exemplified in a key to Sonoran Desert species of Ramalina.

<i>Niebla</i> (lichen) Genus of lichen

Niebla is a genus of yellow-green fruticose lichens that grow on rocks, trees, and shrubs within the fog zone of coastal North America, or more narrowly defined to occur on rocks and soil along the Pacific Coast from Mendocino County in California south to Baja California Sur.

Ramalina hyrcana is a species of fruticose lichen in the family Ramalinaceae. Found in the Hyrcanian forest area along the Caspian coast in Iran, it was described as new to science in 2011.

<i>Niebla homalea</i> Species of lichen

Niebla homalea is a species of fruticose lichen that grows on rocks in foggy areas along the Pacific Coast of North America, from Mendocino County, California south to Bahía de San Quintín on the main peninsula of Baja California, with an isolated occurrence further south on vertical rock faces above Punta Camachos, and other occurrences in the Channel Islands and on Guadalupe Island. The epithet homalea, given by Acharius, suggests it was in regard to the branches appearing flattened.

Vermilacinia cedrosensis is a species of pale fruticose lichen that is endemic to Baja California, Mexico.

Vermilacinia ceruchis is a fruticose lichen found on sand and rock in coastal fog areas of Peru and Chile.

Vermilacinia laevigata is a fruticose lichen that occurs in the fog zone along the Pacific Coast of the California Floristic Province from Marin County, California to 15 miles south of Misión San Vicente Ferrer in Baja California

<i>Vermilacinia procera</i> Species of lichen

Vermilacinia procera is a fruticose lichen of local occurrences on rocks near the sea along the Pacific Coast from San Francisco California to the Channel Islands, and to Punta Escarpada in Baja California. The species is also reported to occur further south to the Vizcaíno Peninsula and on Cedros Island, but these reports are controversial in view of different interpretations of the species that include V. pumila and V. paleoderma that were not recognized at the time V. procera was described ; for example, a specimen collected on Guadalupe Island by Weber and MCoy (L-3605, COLO that was cited by Phillip Rundel and Peter Bowler in 1994 as belonging to Niebla procera, whereas in a revision of the genus by Richard Spjut in 1996, it was cited as belonging to Vermilacinia paleoderma. Both authorities generally agree to some extent on the description of the species and its geographical range within the California Floristic Province.

Vermilacinia cephalota is a fruticose lichen usually found on trees, shrubs and wooden fences in the fog regions along the Pacific Coast of North America from southeastern Alaska to the Vizcaíno Peninsula of Baja California.

Vermilacinia cerebra is a fruticose lichen that grows on trees and shrubs in the fog regions along the Pacific Coast of North America from the Channel Islands and mainland California near Los Angeles to southern Baja California, also occurring in South America in the Antofagasta Province of northern Chile. The epithet is in reference to the apical swollen lobes that resemble the cerebrum of the brain.

Vermilacinia leonis is a fruticose lichen usually found on branches of shrubs in the fog regions along the Pacific Coast of North America and South America; in North America it is found on the southern half of the main peninsula of Baja California north to the southern coast of the Vizcaíno Peninsula. In South America, it occurs on bushes and rocks in Chile; reported from Colchaqua (Valley) and Santiago The epithet is in regard to absence of the black transverse bands often seen in other species such as V. leopardina, V. tigrina and V. zebrina.

Vermilacinia leopardina is a fruticose lichen usually that grows abundantly on the branches of shrubs in the fog regions along the Pacific Coast of North America, in the Channel Islands and on the mainland of California from Santa Barbara County south to the Vizcaíno Peninsula of Baja California. The species is also reported to occur in Chile, based on a single specimen mounted on a large index card off to one corner with the type (biology) of Usnea tumidula in the center and bottom ; it is possible that the specimen of V. leopardina was from North America and placed on the card for the purpose of making a comparison to the type for Usnea tumidula, which was annotated Ramalina ceruchis var. gracilior Muell.Arg., a name of uncertain status. The epithet, leopardina, is in reference to the black transverse bands and irregularly shaped black spots commonly seen on the thallus branches that obviously imply a similarity to the leopard animal, while also making comparative distinctions to other black banded species: V. tigrina and V. zebrina, obviously to a tiger and zebra, and to V. leonis, obviously a lion, which has no black stripes.

Niebla marinii is a fruticose lichen that grows on lava along the Pacific Coast of Baja California from near San Fernando Canyon south to Morro Santo Domingo. The epithet, marinii, is in honor of a field assistant, Richard Marin, who accompanied the author on lichen-collecting expeditions to Baja California during 1985–1996, while he also assisted in the gathering of samples of flowering plants for cancer research.

Niebla podetiaforma is a fruticose lichen that grows frequently on small stones in fog regions along the Pacific Coast of Baja California from San Vicente Canyon to Morro Santo Domingo. The epithet, podetiaforma is in reference to a primary inflated branch of the thallus that resembles a podetium, a common feature in the lichen genus Cladonia.

Anzia centrifuga is a species of foliose lichen in the family Parmeliaceae. It is found only on one volcano on Porto Santo in the Madeira Archipelago, where it grows on rocks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sekikaic acid</span> Chemical compound found in some lichens

Sekikaic acid is an organic compound in the structural class of chemicals known as depsides. It is found in some lichens. First isolated from Ramalina sekika, it is a fairly common lichen product in Ramalina and Cladonia, both genera of lichen-forming fungi. The species epithet of the powdery lichen Lepraria sekikaica refers to the presence of this substance—a rarity in genus Lepraria.

<i>Ramalina polyforma</i> Species of lichen

Ramalina polyforma is a species of saxicolous (rock-dwelling), fruticose lichen in the family Ramalinaceae. This greenish-grey shrubby lichen, endemic to the Galápagos Islands, was formally described as a new species in 2007 by Dutch lichenologist André Aptroot.

<i>Ramalina dilacerata</i> Species of fungus

Ramalina dilacerata, commonly known as punctured ribbon lichen, is a lichen species belonging to the family Ramalinaceae. The species was first described in 1796 as Lobaria dilacerata Hoffm., and later transferred to the genus Ramalina by Hoffmann in 1825.

References

  1. ↑ "GSD Species Synonymy. Current Name: Ramalina peruviana Ach., Lich. Univ.: 599 (1810)". Species Fungorum . Retrieved 31 January 2024.
  2. ↑ Acharius, E. (1810). Lichenographia Universalis (in Latin). Gottingen: Iust. Frid. Danckwerts. p. 599.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Sipman, Harrie J.M.; Ramírez Ordaya, Ángel (2023). "An ITS sequence of a specimen from the probable locus classicus of Ramalina peruviana and its consequences". The Lichenologist. 55 (5): 437–440. doi:10.1017/S0024282923000324.
  4. ↑ Spjut, Richard; Simon, Antoine; Guissard, Martin; Magain, Nicolas; Sérusiaux, Emmanuël (2020). "The fruticose genera in the Ramalinaceae (Ascomycota, Lecanoromycetes): their diversity and evolutionary history". MycoKeys. 73: 1–68. doi: 10.3897/mycokeys.73.47287 . PMC   7501315 . PMID   32994702.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Blanchon, Daniel J.; Braggins, John E.; Stewart, Alison (1996). "The lichen genus Ramalina in New Zealand". Journal of the Hattori Botanical Laboratory. 79: 43–98.
  6. 1 2 3 Pérez-Vargas, Israel (2014). "A new endemic Ramalina species from the Canary Islands (Ascomycota, Lecanorales)". Phytotaxa. 159 (4): 269–278. doi:10.11646/phytotaxa.159.4.3.
  7. ↑ Cordeiro, Lucimara M.C.; Reis, Rodrigo A.; Cruz, Leonardo M.; Stocker-Wörgötter, Elfriede; Grube, Martin; Iacomini, Marcello (2005). "Molecular studies of photobionts of selected lichens from the coastal vegetation of Brazil". FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 54 (3): 381–390. Bibcode:2005FEMME..54..381C. doi:10.1016/j.femsec.2005.05.003. PMID   16332336.
  8. 1 2 3 Oh, Soon-Ok; Wang, Xin Yu; Wang, Li Song; Liu, Pei Gui; Hur, Jae-Seoun (2014). "A note on the lichen genus Ramalina (Ramalinaceae, Ascomycota) in the Hengduan Mountains in China". Mycobiology. 42 (3): 229–240. doi:10.5941/MYCO.2014.42.3.229. PMC   4206788 . PMID   25346599.
  9. 1 2 Aptroot, A.; Bungartz, F. (2007). "The lichen genus Ramalina on the Galapagos". The Lichenologist. 39 (6): 519–542. doi:10.1017/S0024282907006901.
  10. ↑ Cordeiro, Lucimara M.C.; Iacomini, Marcello; Stocker-Wörgötter, Elfie (2004). "Culture studies and secondary compounds of six Ramalina species". Mycological Research. 108 (5): 489–497. doi:10.1017/S0953756204009402. PMID   15230001.
  11. ↑ Linh, Nguyen Thi Thuy; Danova, Ade; Truong, Tuong Lam; Chavasiri, Warinthorn; Phung, Nguyen Kim Phi; Chi, Huynh Bui Linh (2020). "Chemical constituents of chloroform extract from the lichen Ramalina peruviana Arch (Ramalinaceae)". Vietnam Journal of Chemistry. 58 (2): 231–236. doi: 10.1002/vjch.201900172 .
  12. ↑ Chi, Huynh Bui Linh; Thi Thuy Linh, Nguyen; Hong Hanh, Le; Linh, Phan Hoang; Tuyen, Pham Nguyen Kim; Phat, Nguyen Tan; Tuyet, Nguyen Thi Anh (2021). "Triterpenoids and steroids from the lichen Ramalina peruviana Arch". Vietnam Journal of Chemistry. 59 (4): 451–456. doi: 10.1002/vjch.202000174 .
  13. ↑ Huynh, Bui-Linh-Chi; Nguyen, Thi-Thuy-Linh; Nguyen, Van-Kieu; Chavasiri, Warinthorn; Nguyen, Kim-Phi-Phung; Duong, Thuc-Huy (2022). "Three new phenolic compounds from the lichen Ramalina peruviana Ach. (Ramalinaceae)". Natural Product Research. 36 (8): 2009–2014. doi:10.1080/14786419.2020.1839463. PMID   33155492.
  14. 1 2 Stevens, G.N. (1987). "The lichen genus Ramalina in Australia". Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), Botany Series. 16 (2): 170–173.
  15. ↑ Aptroot, A. (2008). "Lichens of St Helena and Ascension Island". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 158: 147–171. doi: 10.1111/j.1095-8339.2008.00797.x .
  16. ↑ Follmann, Gerhard (2008). "Two new crustaceous soil lichens (Arthoniales) from the Chilean Atacama Desert, South America" (PDF). Herzogia. 21: 25–39.
  17. ↑ Osorio, Hector S. (1992). "Contribution to the lichen flora of Uruguay. XXIV. Lichens from Sierra San Miguel, Rocha Department" (PDF). Boletin de la Sociedad Argentina de Botanica. 28 (1–4): 37–40.
  18. ↑ Follman; Mies (1986). "Contributions to the lichen flora and lichen vegetation of the Cape Verde islands. IV. New lichen records and their chorological significance". Journal of the Hattori Botanical Laboratory. 61: 499–523.
  19. ↑ Kaminsky, Barry (2011). "Lichen cover and diversity in a south Florida forest". Evansia. 28 (3): 61–68. doi:10.1639/079.028.0301.
  20. ↑ Swinscow, Thomas Douglas Victor; Krog, Hildur (1988). Macrolichens of East Africa. London: British Museum (Natural History). pp. 284–285. ISBN   978-0-565-01039-3.
  21. ↑ Werner, R.G. (1977). "Lichens nouveaux pour le Maroc ou la science avec regard sur la Grèce" [New lichens for Morocco or science with a view towards Greece]. Scientific Annals of the School of Agriculture and Forestry, Aristotelian University Thessaloniki. B: 1–15.
  22. ↑ Bannister, P.; Bannister, J.M.; Blanchon, D.J. (2004). "Distribution, habitat, and relation to climatic factors of the lichen genus Ramalina in New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Botany. 42 (1): 121–138. Bibcode:2004NZJB...42..121B. doi:10.1080/0028825X.2004.9512894.
  23. ↑ de Lange, P.J.; Blanchon, D.J. (2015). "Lichen notes from the Kermadec Islands. II. Ramalina". Bulletin of the Auckland Museum. 12: 115–137.
  24. ↑ Blanchon, Dan; de Lange, Peter (2011). "New records of Ramalina (Ramalinaceae, Ascomycota) from the Cook Islands, South Pacific Ocean" (PDF). Australaisn Lichenology. 69: 4–10.
  25. ↑ Nell Stevens, G. (1979). "Distribution and related ecology of macrolichens on mangroves on the east Australian coast". The Lichenologist. 11 (3): 293–305. doi:10.1017/S0024282979000347.
  26. ↑ Kashiwadani, Hiroyuki; Moon, Kwang Hee; Lai, Ming-Jou (2006). "The genus Ramalina (Ascomycotina: Ramalinaceae) in Taiwan" (PDF). Memoirs of the National Museum of Nature and Science. 44: 161–173.
  27. ↑ Lumbsch, H.T.; Ahti, T.; Altermann, S.; De Paz, G.A.; Aptroot, A.; Arup, U.; et al. (2011). "One hundred new species of lichenized fungi: a signature of undiscovered global diversity" (PDF). Phytotaxa. 18 (1): 9–11. doi:10.11646/phytotaxa.18.1.1.
  28. ↑ Galinato, M.G.M.; Bungihan, M.E.; Santiago, K.A.A.; Sangvichien, E.; dela Cruz, T.E.E. (2021). "Antioxidant activities of fungi inhabiting Ramalina peruviana: insights on the role of endolichenic fungi in the lichen symbiosis". Current Research in Environmental & Applied Mycology. 11 (1): 119–136. doi:10.5943/cream/11/1/10.
  29. ↑ Etayo, Javier (2017). Hongos liquenícolas de Ecuador (PDF). Opera Lilloana. Vol. 50. p. 254.
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