Sand whiting

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Sand whiting
Sand whiting.jpg
Sand whiting taken near Byron Bay, New South Wales
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Spariformes
Family: Sillaginidae
Genus: Sillago
Species:
S. ciliata
Binomial name
Sillago ciliata
Cuvier, 1829
S. ciliata distribution map.png
Range of the Sand whiting
Synonyms
  • S. diadoiThiollière, 1857
  • S. insularisCastelnau, 1873
  • S. terra-reginaeCastelnau, 1878
  • S. ciliata diadoiWhitley, 1932

The sand whiting (Sillago ciliata), also known as the summer whiting, yellowfin whiting or blue-nose whiting, is a common species of coastal marine fish of the family Sillaginidae, the smelt-whitings. It is a slender, slightly compressed fish that is very similar to other species of Sillago, with detailed spine, ray and lateral line scale counts needed to distinguish the species between its nearest relative Sillago analis . The sand whiting is distributed along the east coast of Australia from Cape York south to Tasmania, as well as Lord Howe Island and New Caledonia in the Pacific Ocean.

Contents

The sand whiting commonly inhabits shallow sandy substrates in bays, estuaries and surf zones where it preys on polychaete worms, small crustaceans and bivalve molluscs. Reproduction in the species is variable over its range, generally spawning twice between September and April. Young fish inhabit shallow sand flats, both along the coast and well into the upper reaches of estuaries.

First described in 1829, the species has long been prized as a table fish and is commonly sought by both recreational and commercial fishermen in New South Wales and Queensland. The sand whiting fishery is most prolific in southern Queensland and northern New South Wales where the species is most abundant, often caught along other species of whiting in estuaries and from beaches. Due to its importance as a commercial fish, substantial research has been carried out on the species, especially feasibility studies involving the use of sand whiting in aquaculture.

Taxonomy and naming

The sand whiting is one of over 30 species in the genus Sillago , [2] which is one of five genera belonging to the smelt whiting family Sillaginidae, this family was previously considered to be part of the Percoidea, a suborder of the Perciformes. [3] The 5th edition of Fishes of the World classifies the Sillaginidae in the order Spariformes. [4] [5]

The species was first identified and named by the French naturalist Georges Cuvier in 1829 after receiving a specimen that was listed as having been collected in the "Southern seas". This holotype specimen was apparently taken near the coastline of Tasmania, Australia. [3] Four junior synonyms were subsequently placed on the species, with Castelnau applying both S. insularis and S. terra-reginae, Thiollière applying S. diadoi and Whitley S. ciliata diadoi to the species. All of these names are invalid under the ICZN nomenclature rules, which states that the first correct naming is the one to be used. Many of these synonyms were applied due to confusion over S. ciliata and the nearly identical, closely related species S. analis . The species was also misidentified as S. gracilis, a synonym of S. maculata , the trumpeter whiting; and also S. bassensis , the southern school whiting. [3]

S. ciliata is most commonly called the 'sand whiting' in reference to its preference for sandy substrates compared to some members of the genus which prefer muddy, silty, or grassy substrates. [6] Other common names include the 'blue-nose whiting' in reference to the colour of the nose in fish of larger sizes, and 'summer whiting', a name often applied to S. analis as well. This name is applied to these species as they move from deeper offshore waters into shallow beach and estuarine waters in summer, where they become a target for recreational fishers.

Description

Three sand whiting Sand whiting trio.jpg
Three sand whiting

The sand whiting has a very similar profile to other members of the genus Sillago , with a slightly compressed, elongate body tapering toward the terminal mouth. The dorsal fin is in two parts, the first made of feeble spines and the second of soft rays headed by a single feeble spine, while the ventral profile is straight. [7] The species is known to grow to a maximum size of 51 cm and around 1.25 kg weight. [6]

The fin anatomy is highly useful for identification purposes, with the species having 11 spines in the first dorsal fin, with one spine and 16 or 18 soft rays on the second dorsal fin. The anal fin has two spines with 15 to 17 soft rays posterior to the spines. Lateral line scales and cheek scales are also distinctive, with sand whiting possessing 60 to 69 lateral line scales and cheek scales positioned in 3-4 rows, all of which are ctenoid. The amount of vertebrae are also diagnostic, having 32 to 34 in total. The swim bladder has rudimentary tubules projecting anteriorly and a series laterally that diminish in size and become sawtooth-like posteriorly. The posterior extension is a single, tapering projection that extends well into the caudal region. A duct like process extends from the ventral surface to the urogenital opening. Swim bladder morphology is useless when determining between S. ciliata and S. analis, as they are nearly identical. [3]

The body is a pale brown or silvery brown colour, transitioning to white below, with green, mauve and rosy reflections when the fish is first removed from the water. An indistinct silver-yellow mid-lateral band extends across some specimens. The spinous dorsal fin is olive green with faint darker blotches, the second dorsal fin also a pale olive with rows of dark brown to blackish spots. The anal and ventral fins are pale yellow, the pectorals are pale yellow to pale brown with a well defined dark blue-black blotch at the base. The caudal fin is yellow to olive in colour with darker margins. Juveniles less than 90 mm may have darker blotches along their sides and backs. [3]

Distribution and habitat

The sand whiting inhabits a range along the east coast of Australia from Cape York, Queensland, southward along the coast and the Great Barrier Reef to eastern Victoria and the east coast of Tasmania down to Southport. The species also inhabits a number of islands; Lord Howe Island, New Caledonia, and Woodlark Island, Papua New Guinea. The species is most abundant in lower Queensland and New South Wales, where studies show it inhabits every estuary sampled throughout the course of a study, [8] while in north Queensland, the species is very patchily distributed along the coast. [9]

The sand whiting is an inshore species, inhabiting exposed coastal areas such as beaches, sandbars and surf zones as well as quieter bays, estuaries and coastal lakes. Sand whiting enter estuaries, including intermittently open ones, and penetrate far upstream to the tidal limits of rivers and creeks where juveniles and adolescent fish may be abundant. [10] The adults congregate around the mouths of estuaries, bars, and spits, in depths down to 5 m [11] where they may constitute a large percentage of the icthyofauna of such regions. [12] As implied by their name, they are often found exclusively over sandy substrates, with occasional appearances in Zostera seagrass beds. [8] Individuals are occasionally taken in offshore waters to 40 m during winter.

Biology

Behaviour

The sand whiting is a schooling species, [13] whose movements are associated with a variety of factors including prey, lunar patterns and spawning movements; although there appears to be little consistency in its movements in relation to these factors. Studies on the species over the period of a year have shown the species does not change its local distribution over the course of a day, generally being of the same abundance during both night and day. [12] Seasonal abundance due to spawning is variable, with studies conducted in Moreton Bay, Queensland finding the species recruits heavily to shallow waters and increase numbers during winter months, while studies in the Noosa River estuary have shown no difference in numbers recruited over the course of a season. [14] Like other sillaginids, they have the ability to 'burrow' into the sand and remained hidden until a predator or seine net has passed by. [6]

Diet

The sand whiting's distinctive body shape and mouth placement is an adaptation to bottom feeding, which is the predominant method of feeding for all whiting species. All larger whiting feed by using their protrusile jaws and tube-like mouths to suck up various types of prey from in, on or above the ocean substrate, [15] as well as using their nose as a 'plough' to dig through the substrate. [6] There is a large body of evidence that shows whiting do not rely on visual cues when feeding, instead using a system based on the vibrations emitted by their prey. [16]

S. ciliata is a benthic carnivore that feeds predominantly on polychaetes and various crustaceans. [17] Like other species of Sillago, the diet of the species is related to the size and age of the individual, [15] with three distinct size classes identified in a study conducted in Botany Bay, NSW. The smallest fish of 0–10 cm take large amount of amphipods and few polychaetes, while fish between 11 and 20 cm consume mostly nereid polychaetes and few amphipods. The largest fish over 21 cm take large amounts of bivalve molluscs and shrimps of the genus Callianassa. [18]

Reproduction

As with many species of fish, the timing of spawning varies over the range of the species, with gonad development indicating that spawning in the southern New South Wales region occurs from December to April, [18] while spawning in southern Queensland occurs from September to February. [19] Spawning takes place twice a year, evident by the two classes of egg size found in the ovaries and by the two recruitment pulses observed each year as young fish enter their juvenile habitats. [20] The spawning takes place at the mouths of estuaries or in surf zones, with the larvae occurring in fully marine waters. [21] Juveniles reach 16.5 cm in length after their first year of life, 26.7 cm after their second year and 30.5 cm after their third year. [22] After the beginning of the spawning season young whiting of 10 mm and over can be observed swimming actively in small droves of from 10 to 20 on the sand flats and beaches to which they are recruited, moving up and down with the tide, swimming in very shallow water to depths of 1 m. [14] Unlike closely related sillaginids, the juveniles usually prefer unprotected sand substrates, while other species tend to use seagrass and mangroves as protection. [23] As they grow older they keep further from the shore.

Relationship to humans

The sand whiting is a highly prized table fish often rated equal to the King George whiting, [13] making it a common target for both commercial and recreational fisheries. The flesh is white, tender and has a moist, low oil content composition, making it easily digestible. [22] Investigations into the aquaculture of the species began in the 1980s, and has led to the development of farmed sand whiting.

Commercial fishery

Although the sand whiting ranges down to Victoria and Tasmania, the species is not common enough to make up a significant part of their fisheries, with other sillaginids such as school whiting and stout whiting making up the bulk of the catch. In New South Wales and Queensland, however, it is one of the most common species taken, especially in lower Queensland. The species is often not differentiated from golden-lined whiting or trumpeter whiting, meaning fisheries statistics do not reflect the total catch for the species. In 2000, 238 tonnes of whiting were taken in Queensland, a decrease from the past 4 years. [24] The species is primarily taken in estuaries in New South Wales, and is also included under the general heading of 'school whiting' when taken from beaches. [25] Research showed that the average commercial harvest from individual estuaries was around 1-2 tonnes per year, with an increase in most rivers during the 1970s and 80's. [26]

The species is commonly taken by a number of fishing methods, with the most common being seine nets. Ring, fence, fyke netting and beam trawling are also used occasionally, but more often associated with sampling the entire population for research purposes. [27] Research has focused on the effectiveness of different mesh sizes used to net the species in order to prevent juvenile individuals dying after becoming enmeshed. [28] Associated research has also shown that those whiting that survive and are discarded tend to have much lower survival rates due to scale loss, which is a major issue, as many young fish are regularly taken in such nets and released by the fisherman after sustaining scale loss. [29] These studies have led to a number of proposals and subsequent changes to net regulations. [30]

At market, sand whiting is medium priced fish, sold fresh or frozen; whole and in fillet form. In abundance, sand whiting is moderately priced, with fillets being slightly more expensive. The recovery rate of fillets from whole fish is about 40%. [31] Sand whiting may be used as sashimi.

Recreational fishery

Sand whiting are commonly sought after by anglers due to their reputation as a food fish, and due to their relative accessibility, with large catches possible from many shore-based locations. The catches of recreational fishermen may exceed the catches of professionals, with studies showing Queensland had over twice the amount of fish taken by anglers in 2000. [24]

The species is commonly caught throughout its habitat, with sand flats, tidal gutters in estuaries and surf beaches commonly having producing good catches. Excessively shallow water, especially in proximity to Zostera beds may produce numerous undersized fish, and may be avoided if the young fish are too prevalent. Due to their preferred habitat, light lines with minimal weight added are employed to avoid spooking the fish, with a small running bean or ball sinker commonly rigged above a size 4 or 6 hook. [32] Specialist whiting fishermen often use a red piece of tubing or beads to attract the whiting; whether this works has yet to be proved, but anecdotal evidence shows the fishermen's catches don't suffer. Baits used resemble the species natural prey, with prawns, nippers [ clarification needed ], a variety of bivalves and beach worms most often used, with more successful catches obtained using live bait. [33]

In New South Wales, sand whiting have a minimum legal length of 27 cm to be taken and a daily personal bag limit of 20 applies, [34] while in Queensland there is a minimum size of 23 cm and a combined bag limit of 30 for all whiting species. [35]

Sand whiting are used themselves as live bait for larger species such as mulloway, mangrove jack and large flathead, although anglers must still adhere to the minimum size limit. [36]

Aquaculture

The aquaculture potential for sand whiting was first investigated in the late 1980s, with a number of reports detailing both successful trials and also a number of problems with such trials. A 1988 study showed that sand whiting were more likely to grow in captivity than other whiting species, but the mortality rate of over 50% was unacceptable for use in an economic setting. A number of problems with diseases such as ulcerative dermatitis [37] and the failure of the swim-bladder to inflate properly were also documented, [38] however many of these initial problems have been overcome, and some facilities are breeding around 2000 larvae with a 95% survival rate. [39] Some of these fingerlings are used to restock depleted estuaries, while others form the basis of commercial fish crops. [40]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sillaginidae</span> Family of fishes

The Sillaginidae, commonly known as the smelt-whitings, whitings, sillaginids, sand borers and sand-smelts, are a family of benthic coastal marine fish historically classified in the order Perciformes, although the 5th edition of Fishes of the World places the family in the Spariformes. The smelt-whitings inhabit a wide region covering much of the Indo-Pacific, from the west coast of Africa east to Japan and south to Australia. The family comprises only five genera and 35 species, of which a number are dubious, with the last major revision of the family in 1992 unable to confirm the validity of a number of species. They are elongated, slightly compressed fish, often light brown to silver in colour, with a variety of markings and patterns on their upper bodies. The Sillaginidae are not related to a number of fishes commonly called 'whiting' in the Northern Hemisphere, including the fish originally called whiting, Merlangius merlangus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">King George whiting</span> Species of fish

The King George whiting, also known as the spotted whiting or spotted sillago, is a coastal marine fish of the smelt-whitings family Sillaginidae. The King George whiting is endemic to Australia, inhabiting the south coast of the country from Jurien Bay, Western Australia to Botany Bay, New South Wales in the east. The King George whiting is the only member of the genus Sillaginodes and the largest member of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae, growing to a length of 80 cm and 4.8 kg in weight. The species is readily distinguishable from other Australian whitings by its unique pattern of spots, as well as its highly elongate shape. King George whiting are often found in bays and protected waterways over sand and seagrass beds, also venturing out onto deep continental shelf reefs during adulthood. The species is a benthic carnivore, consuming a variety of crustaceans, polychaete worms, molluscs and fish. The King George whiting forms the basis of one of southern Australia's most important commercial fisheries, reportedly worth over five million Australian dollars per year. The species is also heavily targeted by recreational anglers, who value the whiting for its sporting and eating qualities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gangetic whiting</span> Species of fish

The Gangetic whiting, also known as the Gangetic sillago or flathead sillago, is a species of inshore marine and estuarine fish of the smelt-whiting family, Sillaginidae. It is the most distinctive Asian member of the family due to its flattened head and trailing dorsal fins. Although first described in 1822, it was not placed in its own genus until 1861 when Theodore Gill erected Sillaginopsis, a genus which is still monotypic. Gangetic whiting are of minor commercial importance along the Southeast coast of the Asian continent where it inhabits protected areas.

<i>Sillago</i> Genus of fishes

Sillago is a genus of fish in the family Sillaginidae and the only non-monotypic genus in the family. Distinguishing the species can be difficult, with many similar in appearance and colour, forcing the use of swim bladder morphology as a definitive feature. All species are benthic in nature and generally coastal fish, living in shallow, protected waters although there are exceptions. Minor fisheries exist around various species of Sillago, making them of minor importance in most of their range. This genus has the widest distribution of any smelt-whiting genus, spanning much of the Indo-Pacific. The genus ranges from the east coast of Africa to Japan in the east and Southern Australia in the south, with most species concentrated around South East Asia, the Indonesian Archipelago and Australia. Many species have overlapping distribution, often making positive identification hard.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Golden lined whiting</span> Species of fish

The golden lined whiting, also known as the Tin Can Bay whiting or rough-scale whiting, is a species of inshore marine fish of the smelt whiting family, Sillaginidae that inhabits the coastlines of northern Australia and lower Papua New Guinea. The golden lined whiting can be more readily distinguished by its colour than other whitings in the genus Sillago, although swim bladder morphology and spine and ray counts are the most precise method of identification. S. analis is an opportunistic predator, taking a variety of crustaceans, polychaetes and molluscs, with a transition of diet seen as the fish mature. One unusual aspect about the species diet is the large amounts of molluscan siphons it takes. The species spawns between January and March, with juvenile fish inhabiting the shallow protected coastal waters. Golden lined whiting is important to fisheries centered on Shark Bay in Western Australia and also in Queensland, although makes up a relatively minor component of the whiting fishery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Southern school whiting</span> Species of fish

The southern school whiting ,also known as the silver whiting or trawl whiting, is a common species of coastal marine fish of the smelt-whiting family that inhabits the south and south-west coasts of Australia. Its distribution overlaps a number of other common sillaginids, with careful observation of anatomical features occasionally needed to distinguish between species. The southern school whiting is closely related to the eastern school whiting, Sillago flindersi, and initially were thought to be all one species. The species inhabits both shallow inshore sandy waters, as well as deeper offshore waters, with a transition of habitats occurring with increasing age. It is a predatory fish, taking a variety of crustaceans, polychaetes and bivalves as prey. It reaches sexual maturity at three years of age, and spawns multiple times between December and April. The southern school whiting is commonly caught by commercial and recreational fishermen, often while fishing for related species, especially the sought after King George whiting. The species is marketed fresh in southern Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western trumpeter whiting</span> Species of fish

The western trumpeter whiting is a species of marine fish of the smelt whiting family Sillaginidae that is commonly found along the northern coast of Australia and in southern Indonesia and New Guinea. As its name suggests, it is closely related to and resembles the trumpeter whiting which inhabits the east coast of Australia and is distinguishable by swim bladder morphology alone. The species inhabits a variety of sandy, silty and muddy substrates in depths from 0 to 15 m deep, with older fish inhabiting deeper waters. Western trumpeter whiting are benthic carnivores which take predominantly crustaceans and polychaetes as prey. The species reaches sexual maturity at the end of its first year of age, spawning in batches between December and February. The species is taken as bycatch with other species of whiting and shrimps in Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eastern school whiting</span> Species of fish

The eastern school whiting, also known as the redspot whiting, Bass Strait whiting, Flinders' sillago, silver whiting or spotted whiting, is a species of benthic marine fish of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The eastern school whiting is endemic to Australia, distributed along the east coast from southern Queensland down to Tasmania and South Australia, where it inhabits sandy substrates from shallow tidal flats to depths of 180 m on the continental shelf. Eastern school whiting prey on various crustaceans and polychaete worms, with the diet varying seasonally and throughout the range of the species. Eastern school whiting reproduce in the deeper waters twice a year, releasing up to 110,000 eggs during a season.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intermediate whiting</span> Species of fish

The Intermediate whiting, is a species of coastal marine fish of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The intermediate whiting ranges from the west coast of India to the Gulf of Thailand in the east, inhabiting silty substrates in shallow waters. First identified in 1977 from a specimen found in a fish market, the species has had little research performed on its biology, and is frequently misidentified as Sillago sihama or Sillago maculata intermediate whiting are commonly caught by fishermen throughout their range and are marketed fresh locally.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Japanese whiting</span> Species of fish

The Japanese whiting, also known as the Japanese sillago or Shiro-gisu, is a common species of coastal marine fish belonging to the smelt-whiting family, Sillaginidae. As suggested by its name, the Japanese whiting was first recorded from Japan in 1843, but has subsequently been found to extend to Korea, China and Taiwan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Large-scale whiting</span> Species of fish

The large-scale whiting the only member of the genus Sillaginops, is a poorly understood species of coastal marine fish of the smelt- whiting family Sillaginidae. First described in 1859, the large-scale whiting is known to inhabit shallow waters along the coasts of a number of Indo-Pacific countries including Japan, Indonesia, Philippines and the Solomon Islands. Little is known of the species biology, even though it is of minor importance to fisheries throughout its range.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trumpeter whiting</span> Species of fish

The trumpeter whiting, also known as the winter whiting or diver whiting, is a common species of coastal marine fish of the smelt-whiting family, Sillaginidae. The trumpeter whiting is endemic to Australia, inhabiting the eastern seaboard from southern New South Wales to northern Queensland. The species is found in bays, estuaries, coastal lakes and mangrove creeks on silty and muddy substrates in waters ranging from 0 to 30 m deep, occasionally inhabiting sandy and seagrass beds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Northern whiting</span> Species of fish

The northern whiting, also known as the silver whiting and sand smelt, is a marine fish, the most widespread and abundant member of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The northern whiting was the first species of sillaginid scientifically described and is therefore the type species of both the family Sillaginidae and the genus Sillago. The species is distributed in the Indo-Pacific region from South Africa in the west to Japan and Indonesia in the east. The northern whiting inhabits coastal areas to 60 m, but is most often found in shallow water around bays and estuaries, often entering freshwater. It is a carnivore, taking a variety of polychaetes and crustaceans. The species is of major economic importance throughout the Indo-Pacific. It is most frequently taken by seine nets and cast nets and marketed fresh.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Small-scale whiting</span> Species of fish

The small-scale whiting, also known as the blue whiting, is a species of inshore marine fish of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The small-scale whiting is very similar in body shape and colour to other species in the genus Sillago, but is distinguished by having 12 or 13 spines in the first dorsal fin compared to 11 in all other species. The species is distributed through parts of the west Pacific Ocean including Japan, Taiwan, Korea and India, inhabiting the tidal flats of major estuaries. It is a benthic predator taking crustaceans, molluscs and annelids. Spawning in the species takes place from May to September, with peaks identified in June and July. The eggs and larvae have been extensively studied in order to distinguish them from the more abundant Sillago sihama. Minor fisheries exist for the small-scale whiting, although it is thought be endangered by habitat loss and pollutionIUCN.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soringa whiting</span> Species of fish

The soringa whiting, also known simply as soringa or soringa sillago, is a poorly known species of coastal marine fish of the smelt-whiting family, Sillaginidae. The Soringa whiting is known exclusively from the east coast of India, inhabiting shallow inshore environments, particularly sandy substrates. S. soringa was first described in 1982 by Dutt and Sujatha, with the taxonomic status of the species was questioned by Roland McKay in his review of the Sillaginidae, with similar features to S. asiatica suggesting it is a senior synonym of the latter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Estuarine whiting</span> Species of fish

The estuarine whiting, also known as Vincent's whiting, is a species of benthic inshore marine fish of the smelt-whiting family, Sillaginidae. The estuarine whiting is very similar in appearance to the northern whiting, Sillago sihama, and as such was mistaken for the latter until 1980, when R.J. McKay identified the species based primarily on swimbladder morphology. The estuarine whiting is distributed along both the east and west coasts of India, primarily inhabiting the muddy substrates of estuaries. The species is locally important to fisheries in India, and is recognized as having aquaculture potential.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western school whiting</span> Species of fish

The western school whiting, also known as the banded whiting, golden whiting and bastard whiting, is a species of benthic marine fish in the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The species is one of three 'school whiting' that inhabit southern Australia and share a very similar appearance. Western school whiting are known to grow to 30 cm in length and 275 g in weight, although unconfirmed reports suggest this might be an underestimate. The western school whiting is distributed along the Western Australian coast from Maud Landing in the north to Rottnest Island in the south. The species inhabits both shallow inshore environments and waters to depths of 55 m. The species is a benthic predator, taking a variety of crustaceans, molluscs and echinoderms, and shows a change in diet with age and habitat. S. vittata is a multiple spawner, reproducing between December and February once it has reached one or two years of age. Juveniles inhabit protected inshore waters, moving offshore once they reach sexual maturity. It is often found in association with other sillaginids and comprises a minor fraction of commercial whiting catches in Western Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stout whiting</span> Species of fish

The stout whiting, also known as the yellow-cheek whiting or school whiting, is a species of benthic marine fish in the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. Like other sillaginids, it is an elongate, slightly compressed fish, growing to a maximum known length of 30 cm. The stout whiting is endemic to Australia, with the species divided into western and eastern populations, with the western population ranging from Shark Bay to Fremantle and the eastern population from Bustard Head, Queensland to northern New South Wales. The species inhabits deep, sandy continental shelf regions to a depth of at least 70 m.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yellowfin whiting</span> Species of fish

The yellowfin whiting, also known as the western sand whiting or fine-scaled whiting, is a species of inshore marine fish in the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The species is endemic to the eastern Indian Ocean, ranging from Dampier, Western Australia to Gulf St Vincent in South Australia, with an apparent division in the populations of the two states. Yellowfin whiting inhabit relatively shallow waters for their entire life, often found on tidal flats and creeks, as well as large estuaries. It is one of the largest members of the smelt-whiting family, growing to 42 cm, and can be distinguished by a number of anatomical and colour related features. Yellowfin whiting are benthic carnivores, preying predominantly on polychaete worms, with minor amounts of copepods, amphipods and bivalves also commonly taken. The species shows a change in diet with age, and also dietary differences with other sillaginids presumably to minimize competition. Reproduction occurs at different times throughout its range, generally focused around summer, with up to 217,000 eggs produced per season. Yellowfin whiting reach sexual maturity at around 20 cm, with each individual spawning more than once. The species forms the basis of major fisheries in both Shark Bay, Western Australia and the two Gulfs of South Australia, with around 260 tonnes of fish taken each year. They are also a popular target for shore based anglers, with a reputation as a very good table fish.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Smelt-whiting fishing</span>

Smelt-whiting is the common name for various species of the family Sillaginidae. The Sillaginidae are distributed throughout the Indo-Pacific region, ranging from the west coast of Africa to Japan and Taiwan in the east, as well occupying as a number of small islands including New Caledonia in the Pacific Ocean. Well known members of this family include King George whiting, Japanese whiting, northern whiting, sand whiting and school whiting.

References

  1. ↑ Smith-Vaniz, W.F. (2017) [errata version of 2016 assessment]. "Sillago ciliata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2016: e.T69738986A115472623. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T69738986A69742659.en . Retrieved 2 July 2024.
  2. ↑ Froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. (2023). Species of Sillago in FishBase . June 2023 version.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 McKay, R.J. (1985), "A revision of the fishes of the family Sillaginidae", Memoirs of the Queensland Museum, 23: 1–73
  4. ↑ Nelson, J.S.; Grande, T.C.; Wilson, M.V.H. (2016). Fishes of the World (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 502–506. doi:10.1002/9781119174844. ISBN   978-1-118-34233-6. LCCN   2015037522. OCLC   951899884. OL   25909650M.
  5. ↑ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2007). "Sillago ciliata" in FishBase . Aug 2007 version.
  6. 1 2 3 4 McKay, R.J. (1992), FAO Species Catalogue: Vol. 14. Sillaginid Fishes Of The World, Rome: Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations, pp. 19–20, ISBN   978-92-5-103123-0
  7. ↑ Kuiter, R.H. (1993), Coastal fishes of south-eastern Australia, U.S.A: University of Hawaii Press, ISBN   978-1-86333-067-1
  8. 1 2 Gray, C.A.; McElligott, D.J.; Chick, R.C. (1996), "Intra- and Inter-estuary Differences in Assemblages of Fishes Associated with Shallow Seagrass and Bare Sand", Marine and Freshwater Research, 47 (5): 723–735, doi:10.1071/MF9960723
  9. ↑ Sheaves, M. (2006), "Scale-dependent variation in composition of fish fauna among sandy tropical estuarine embayments", Marine Ecology Progress Series, 310: 173–184, Bibcode:2006MEPS..310..173S, doi: 10.3354/meps310173
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  11. ↑ Weng, H.T. (1986), "Spatial and temporal distribution of whiting Sillaginidae in Moreton Bay, Queensland Australia", Journal of Fish Biology, 29 (6): 755–764, doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1986.tb04991.x
  12. 1 2 Miller, S.J.; Skilleter, G.A (2006), "Temporal variation in habitat use by nekton in a subtropical estuarine system", Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 337 (1): 82–95, Bibcode:2006JEMBE.337...82M, doi:10.1016/j.jembe.2006.06.010, 0022-0981
  13. 1 2 Hutchins, Barry; Swainston, Roger (1986), Sea Fishes of Southern Australia. Complete Field Guide for Anglers and Divers, Melbourne: Swainston Publishing, p. 187, ISBN   978-1-875169-78-8
  14. 1 2 Weng, H.T. (1983), "Identification, habitats and seasonal occurrence of juvenile whiting (Sillaginidae) in Moreton Bay, Queensland", Journal of Fish Biology, 23 (2): 195–200, Bibcode:1983JFBio..23..195W, doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1983.tb02894.x
  15. 1 2 Hyndes, G.A.; Platell, M.E.; Potter, I.C. (1997), "Relationships between diet and body size, mouth morphology, habitat and movements of six Sillaginid species in coastal waters: implications for resource partitioning", Marine Biology, 128 (4): 585–598, Bibcode:1997MarBi.128..585H, doi:10.1007/s002270050125, S2CID   84171376
  16. ↑ Hadwen, W.L.; Russell, G.L.; Arthington, A.H. (1985), "The food, feeding habits and feeding structures of the whiting species Sillago sihama (ForsskaÊ l) and Sillago analis Whitley from Townsville, North Queensland, Australia.", Journal of Fish Biology, 26 (4): 411–427, Bibcode:1985JFBio..26..411G, doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1985.tb04281.x
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  20. ↑ Smith, K.A.; Sinerchia, M. (2004), "Timing of recruitment events, residence periods and post-settlement growth of juvenile fish in a seagrass nursery area, south-eastern Australia", Environmental Biology of Fishes, 71 (1): 73–84, Bibcode:2004EnvBF..71...73S, doi:10.1023/B:EBFI.0000043154.96933.de, S2CID   21763968
  21. ↑ Kailola, P.J.; Williams, M.J.; Stewart, R.E.; et al. (1993), "Australian fisheries resources", Bureau of Resource Sciences, Canberra, A.C.T.: Bureau of Resource Sciences, Dept. of Primary Industries and Energy, ISBN   978-0-642-18876-2
  22. 1 2 Roughley, T.C.; Ginsborg, BL (1951), "The Fish and Fisheries of Australia", Nature, 170 (4314): 36–7, Bibcode:1952Natur.170..593S, doi: 10.1038/170593a0 , PMID   14957011, S2CID   4217479
  23. ↑ West, R.J.; King, R.J. (1996), "Marine, Brackish, and Freshwater Fish Communities in the Vegetated and Bare Shallows of an Australian Coastal River", Estuaries, 19 (1): 31–41, doi:10.2307/1352649, JSTOR   1352649, S2CID   84616956
  24. 1 2 Williams, L.E. (2002), Queensland's Fisheries Resources: Current conditions and recent trends 1988-2000, Brisbane: Department of Primary Industries Queensland, pp. 174–178, archived from the original on 2007-08-29, retrieved 2007-08-25
  25. ↑ Wilkinson, J. (2004), NSW Fishing Industry: Changes and Challenges in the Twenty-First Century, Sydney: NSW Parliamentary Library Research Service, pp. 174–178, ISBN   978-0-7313-1768-4, archived from the original on 2007-08-17, retrieved 2007-08-25
  26. ↑ West, R.J.; Gordon, G.N.G. (1994), "Commercial and Recreational Harvest of Fish from two Australian Coastal Rivers", Aust. J. Mar. Freshwater Res., 45 (7): 1259–79, CiteSeerX   10.1.1.694.4939 , doi:10.1071/MF9941259
  27. ↑ Butcher, A.; Mayer, D.; Smallwood, D.; Johnston, M. (1997), "A comparison of the relative efficiency of ring, fyke, fence nets and beam trawling for estimating key estuarine fishery populations", Fisheries Research, 32 (3): 51–60, doi:10.1016/j.fishres.2005.01.014
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  30. ↑ Broadhurst, M.K.; Kennelly, S.J.; Barker, D.T. (1997), "Simulated escape of juvenile sand whiting ( Sillago ciliata, Cuvier) through square-meshes: Effects on scale-loss and survival", Fisheries Research, 32 (1): 51–60, Bibcode:1997FishR..32...51B, doi:10.1016/S0165-7836(97)00037-4
  31. ↑ Sydney Fish Market, Sand Whiting (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on October 8, 2006, retrieved 2007-08-17
  32. ↑ Starling, S. (1988), The Australian Fishing Book, Hong Kong: Bacragas Pty. Ltd., p. 490, ISBN   978-0-7301-0141-3
  33. ↑ Horrobin, P. (1997), "Guide to Favourite Australian Fish", Guide to Favourite Australian Fish: A Gregory's Consumer Guide, Singapore: Universal Magazines: 102–103, ISSN   1037-2059
  34. ↑ New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Bag and Size Limits - Saltwater (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-27, retrieved 2007-08-17
  35. ↑ Queensland Government Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Recreational fishing size and bag limits for tidal waters in Queensland - July 2010 (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-09-23, retrieved 2010-09-16
  36. ↑ Downie, David, Live-baiting Brisbane Estuaries , retrieved 2007-08-17
  37. ↑ Gill, P.A.; Callinan, R.B. (1997), "Ulcerative dermatitis associated with Uronema sp infection of farmed sand whiting Sillago ciliata", Australian Veterinary Journal, 75 (5): 357, doi:10.1111/j.1751-0813.1997.tb15714.x, PMID   9196825
  38. ↑ Battaglene, S.C.; McBride, S.; Talbot, R.C. (1994), "Swim bladder inflation in larvae of cultured sand whiting, Sillago ciliata Cuvier (Sillaginidae)", Aquaculture, 128 (1–2): 177–192, Bibcode:1994Aquac.128..177B, doi:10.1016/0044-8486(94)90112-0
  39. ↑ Burke, Michael, Marine fingerling production at the Bribie Island Aquaculture Research Centre intensive green-water culture: An historical perspective (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-28
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