King George whiting

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King George whiting
Sillaginodes punctatus juvenile.jpg
Juvenile
Scientific classification Red Pencil Icon.png
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Perciformes
Family: Sillaginidae
Genus: Sillaginodes
T. N. Gill, 1861
Species:
S. punctatus
Binomial name
Sillaginodes punctatus
(Cuvier, 1829)
KG whiting World Distribution Map.jpg
Range of the King George whiting
Synonyms

Sillaginodes punctata Cuvier, 1829
Sillago punctata Cuvier, 1829
Isosillago punctata Cuvier, 1829
Isosillago maculataMacleay, 1878

Contents

The King George whiting (Sillaginodes punctatus), also known as the spotted whiting or spotted sillago, is a coastal marine fish of the smelt-whitings family Sillaginidae. The King George whiting is endemic to Australia, inhabiting the south coast of the country from Jurien Bay, Western Australia to Botany Bay, New South Wales in the east. [1] The King George whiting is the only member of the genus Sillaginodes and the largest member of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae, growing to a length of 80 cm and 4.8 kg in weight. The species is readily distinguishable from other Australian whitings by its unique pattern of spots, as well as its highly elongate shape. King George whiting are often found in bays and protected waterways over sand and seagrass beds, also venturing out onto deep continental shelf reefs during adulthood. The species is a benthic carnivore, consuming a variety of crustaceans, polychaete worms, molluscs and fish. The King George whiting forms the basis of one of southern Australia's most important commercial fisheries, reportedly worth over five million Australian dollars per year. The species is also heavily targeted by recreational anglers, who value the whiting for its sporting and eating qualities.

Taxonomy and naming

The King George whiting is the only species nested in the genus Sillaginodes, which itself is in the family Sillaginidae, containing all the smelt whitings. [2] The Sillaginidae are part of the Percoidei, a suborder of the order Perciformes. [3] The King George whiting was first officially named by Cuvier in 1829 as Sillago punctata, based on an individual taken from King George Sound in Western Australia. [4] In 1861, Theodore Gill created the monotypic genus Sillaginodes based on a number or morphological characteristics and assigned S. punctatus to it. A number of synonyms have been applied after the initial correct naming, apparently due to Cuvier not designating a holotype, or it being lost. A lectotype was finally designated by McKay in 1985. [5] The species has a variety of common names (many now obsolete), with the most common, “King George whiting”, taken from the name of the body of water where the initial description was made. It is also often called the spotted whiting in reference to its obliquely positioned bars of brown spots, with other names used in markets, especially outside of Australia. [5]

Description

The King George whiting has the same overall profile as the rest of the sillaginid fishes, an elongate, slightly compressed body with a tapering head and terminal mouth. The genus Sillaginodes is distinguished by a first dorsal fin with twelve or thirteen spines and the second dorsal fin with a single spine and 25 to 27 soft rays. [1] The vertebrae number between 42 and 44 in the genus. [4]

The King George whiting is the only member of the genus Sillaginodes and is further distinguished from any other possible taxa assigned to that genus by a number of distinct anatomical features. It is the largest of the Sillaginid fishes with 129 to 147 lateral line scales, and like all fishes in the family is best distinguished by the shape of its swim bladder. In plan view, the swim bladder has a land slug-like appearance, with a posteriorly tapering extension and two anterolateral extensions or ‘horns’. There are no duct-like processes on the ventral surface unlike taxa in the genus Sillago . [4]

In situations where identification is needed quickly, the colour of the King George whiting is also very distinctive, with a pale golden brown to olive brown top colour and white to silver colour on its underside. The species also as distinct obliquely positioned rows of brown spots running the length of its body, which are apparent to see even after removal from the water and after death. The caudal, anal and pectoral fins are usually a light brown, with some having olive green caudal fins. [6]

It is the largest member of Sillaginidae, growing to a maximum length of 72 cm long and 4.8 kg in weight. [6]

Distribution and habitat

Typical habitat of young King George whiting: seagrass beds amongst sand patches 17 Mt Dutton Bay 01.JPG
Typical habitat of young King George whiting: seagrass beds amongst sand patches

The King George whiting is endemic to Southern Australia, ranging lower Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria and occasionally even lower New South Wales. The westernmost reported capture was in Jurien Bay and the furthest east King George whiting have been reported from is Botany Bay in New South Wales (although this appears to be a rare occurrence). [4]

King George whiting are most commonly found in tidal bays, estuaries and creeks along the coast of the mainland and numerous islands scattered throughout the species’ range. There is a distinct difference in habitat between the adult and juvenile fish, with the juveniles more inclined to inhabit shallower waters in protected bays, creeks and estuaries. [7] A favourite habitat of young fish appears to be Zostera and Posidonia seagrass beds in protected bays, apparently using the seagrass as protection and for foraging purposes. [8] Juveniles tend to form schools of varying sizes, occasionally schooling with other species, including other members of the family Sillaginidae. [6] Adults tend to be solitary and found in deeper water in a range of habitats including bays, offshore surf gutters, broken bottom and deep reef, also venturing into shallower water on occasion.

Biology

Diet

The King George whiting's distinctive body shape and mouth placement is an adaptation to bottom feeding, which is the predominant method of feeding for all whiting species. All larger whiting feed by using their protrusile jaws and tube-like mouths to suck up various types of prey from in, on or above the ocean substrate. [9] There is a large body of evidence that shows whiting do not rely on visual cues when feeding, instead using a system based on the vibrations emitted by their prey. [10]

Studies of gut content have shown that the primary food items of King George whiting are amphipods, copepods and polychaete worms. [11] Unlike any of its relatives, the King George whiting does not appear to feed on molluscs, which is unusual because in many parts of Southern Australia, the main bait used by recreational fishers to catch whiting is the cockle; a mollusc, but then, it has been deshelled. An excellent bait for catching King George Whiting is raw king prawn, such as banana prawn. They are better bought in the shell and peeled shortly before using, as this keeps the bait fresh. Also rare in the diet are echinoderms, which are frequent prey for other species of Sillago. This may be a function of niche partitioning, as in many areas the King George whiting's habitat overlaps with other species of the genus Sillago. [9] Other minor components of the diet include crustaceans such as carids, leptostracans, stomatopods, crabs, tanaids, cumaceans and isopods as well as other fish and benthic algae.

As previously mentioned, younger fish tend to school when foraging, and have been known to forage in groups with other species such as silver trevally, tarwhine and other species of whiting. [6] Larger fish tend to occupy areas with larger species such as Australasian snapper, blue morwong and larger trevally.

Predators

King George whiting, especially juveniles, are known to be common prey for a number of larger inshore fishes and wading birds. The most prominent inshore predators are Australian salmon, members of the flathead family, the barracouta (a snake mackerel), snook as well as various species of sharks and rays. [12] Various species of diving birds, particularly the pied cormorant are also common predators of the species, [13] as are marine mammals such as bottlenose and common dolphins. [14]

Reproduction

King George whiting reach sexual maturity at three to four years of age, with males reaching 30 cm in length and females 34 cm. These lengths are used as guides when setting minimum legal lengths for the species, allowing adequate time for an individual to reproduce before being taken. [15] Spawning occurs in a range of areas, depending on the geographic locality of the individual; some spawning in deeper water up to 9 m deep, others in estuaries. [16] May and June are the most common times for spawning, with some spawning events recorded as early as February and as late as July. [3] Juvenile fish are recruited to areas by ocean currents, with studies showing the species is too weak a swimmer to be able to undertake long distance journeys. [17] The location of spawning also has implications for the location of the juveniles, as with some estuary breeding individuals.

Relationship to humans

The King George whiting is a highly rated food fish and is common in southern Australia and so has become a major component of the commercial and recreational fisheries in this region, with aquaculture potential still being explored but apparently of low value. [1]

Commercial fishery

The main commercial King George whiting fishery is centred on South Australia from Ceduna in the west to Gulf St Vincent in the east. Smaller fisheries are present in Victoria and south west Western Australia. Common catching practices include haul seine nets, gill nets as well as longline and handline methods. This fishery is one of the most important in the country, reportedly worth five million Australian dollars a year, [4] as King George whiting fetch premium price in markets. This single species alone was reported as comprising 60% of the total annual catch in South Australia during the late 1980s. [18] The fish are sold either whole or as fillets and are generally rated as one of the very best quality Australian fish for the table, and are ubiquitous in Fish and chips shops.

Recreational fishery

In Southern Australia, the King George whiting is often the sole target for fishermen who seek it for its high quality eating. [1] A number of coastal towns rely heavily on the species as a tourism drawcard for anglers seeking a range of fish and crustacean species, but King George whiting is often the most desired catch. [19] They are a relatively easy species to catch, with no special baits, rigs or techniques required and are often caught from jetties, beaches and rocks; meaning a boat is not necessary. Simple rigs such varieties of running ball sinker or paternoster rigs are commonly used, with a fixed sinker employed in area of high tidal movement. [20] As mentioned previously, molluscs, particularly the Goolwa cockle are common bait, with varieties of worms, gents, squid, cuttlefish, fish pieces and especially raw king prawn are commonly successful. The larger fish inhabiting deep reefs are often caught on whole pilchards while fishing for snapper and morwong. [20]

The King George whiting has differing size and bag limits for anglers in different states. In Victoria, there is a minimum size limit of 27 cm and a bag limit of 20 per person. [21] South Australia is divided into two zones concerning the taking of this species, with fish caught east of longitude 136° restricted to a minimum length of 32 cm and fish caught to the west of longitude 136° having a minimum length of 30 cm. In both divisions, the bag limit is 10 fish per person. [22] Western Australia has set a minimum legal limit of 28 cm and a bag limit of 8 per person. [23]

Aquaculture

Due to the King George whitings’ popularity as a food fish, extensive investigations into the viability of the species as an aquaculture species have occurred, with most initial investigations indicating the long larval cycle is a major barrier to the successful farming of the fish. Other problems have arisen in a parasite previously unknown in the species only affecting the fish in captivity. Thyroid growth hormones may be used in the future to hasten growth of larvae and make such ventures more feasible. [24]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sillaginidae</span> Family of fishes

The Sillaginidae, commonly known as the smelt-whitings, whitings, sillaginids, sand borers and sand-smelts, are a family of benthic coastal marine fish in the order Perciformes. The smelt-whitings inhabit a wide region covering much of the Indo-Pacific, from the west coast of Africa east to Japan and south to Australia. The family comprises only five genera and 35 species, of which a number are dubious, with the last major revision of the family in 1992 unable to confirm the validity of a number of species. They are elongated, slightly compressed fish, often light brown to silver in colour, with a variety of markings and patterns on their upper bodies. The Sillaginidae are not related to a number of fishes commonly called 'whiting' in the Northern Hemisphere, including the fish originally called whiting, Merlangius merlangus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gangetic whiting</span> Species of fish

The Gangetic whiting, Sillaginopsis panijus, is a species of inshore marine and estuarine fish of the smelt-whiting family, Sillaginidae. It is the most distinctive Asian member of the family due to its flattened head and trailing dorsal fins. Although first described in 1822, it was not placed in its own genus until 1861 when Theodore Gill erected Sillaginopsis, a genus which is still monotypic. Gangetic whiting are of minor commercial importance along the Southeast coast of the Asian continent where it inhabits protected areas.

<i>Sillago</i> Genus of fishes

Sillago is a genus of fish in the family Sillaginidae and the only non-monotypic genus in the family. Distinguishing the species can be difficult, with many similar in appearance and colour, forcing the use of swim bladder morphology as a definitive feature. All species are benthic in nature and generally coastal fish, living in shallow, protected waters although there are exceptions. Minor fisheries exist around various species of Sillago, making them of minor importance in most of their range. This genus has the widest distribution of any smelt-whiting genus, spanning much of the Indo-Pacific. The genus ranges from the east coast of Africa to Japan in the east and Southern Australia in the south, with most species concentrated around South East Asia, the Indonesian Archipelago and Australia. Many species have overlapping distribution, often making positive identification hard.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oriental trumpeter whiting</span> Species of fish

The oriental trumpeter whiting, Sillago aeolus, is a widely distributed species of benthic inshore fish in the smelt-whiting family. The species ranges from east Africa to Japan, inhabiting much if the southern Asian and Indonesian coastlines. Its morphology is very similar to other species within the genus Sillago, with a long, compressed body and silvery overall colour. It can be distinguished from its relatives by colour patterns and particularly swim bladder morphology, which helps define most species of Sillago. S aeolus is a benthic predator, consuming a variety of crustaceans and polychaetes. As with most members of the smelt whiting family, it is important to small coastal fisheries in various areas of its range.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Golden lined whiting</span> Species of fish

The golden lined whiting, Sillago analis, is a species of inshore marine fish of the smelt whiting family, Sillaginidae that inhabits the coastlines of northern Australia and lower Papua New Guinea. The golden lined whiting can be more readily distinguished by its colour than other whitings in the genus Sillago, although swim bladder morphology and spine and ray counts are the most precise method of identification. S. analis is an opportunistic predator, taking a variety of crustaceans, polychaetes and molluscs, with a transition of diet seen as the fish mature. One unusual aspect about the species diet is the large amounts of molluscan siphons it takes. The species spawns between January and March, with juvenile fish inhabiting the shallow protected coastal waters. Golden lined whiting is important to fisheries centered on Shark Bay in Western Australia and also in Queensland, although makes up a relatively minor component of the whiting fishery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Asian whiting</span> Species of fish

The Asian whiting, Sillago asiatica, is a species inshore marine fish in the smelt whiting family, Sillaginidae, distributed along the Asian coastline from the Gulf of Thailand to Taiwan. The Asian whiting's appearance is very similar to other closely related species in the genus Sillago, with swim bladder morphology and ray counts of fins the most reliable identifying features. The species inhabits slightly deeper water than many of the sillaginid species its distribution overlaps, forming an important part of the whiting fishery in the countries within its range.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Southern school whiting</span> Species of fish

The southern school whiting, Sillago bassensis, is a common species of coastal marine fish of the smelt-whiting family that inhabits the south and south-west coasts of Australia. Its distribution overlaps a number of other common sillaginids, with careful observation of anatomical features occasionally needed to distinguish between species. The southern school whiting is closely related to the eastern school whiting, Sillago flindersi, and initially were thought to be all one species. The species inhabits both shallow inshore sandy waters, as well as deeper offshore waters, with a transition of habitats occurring with increasing age. It is a predatory fish, taking a variety of crustaceans, polychaetes and bivalves as prey. It reaches sexual maturity at three years of age, and spawns multiple times between December and April. The southern school whiting is commonly caught by commercial and recreational fishermen, often while fishing for related species, especially the sought after King George whiting. The species is marketed fresh in southern Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western trumpeter whiting</span> Species of fish

The western trumpeter whiting, Sillago burrus, is a species of marine fish of the smelt whiting family Sillaginidae that is commonly found along the northern coast of Australia and in southern Indonesia and New Guinea. As its name suggests, it is closely related to and resembles the trumpeter whiting which inhabits the east coast of Australia and is distinguishable by swim bladder morphology alone. The species inhabits a variety of sandy, silty and muddy substrates in depths from 0 to 15 m deep, with older fish inhabiting deeper waters. Western trumpeter whiting are benthic carnivores which take predominantly crustaceans and polychaetes as prey. The species reaches sexual maturity at the end of its first year of age, spawning in batches between December and February. The species is taken as bycatch with other species of whiting and shrimps in Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sand whiting</span> Species of fish

The sand whiting, also known as the summer whiting, yellowfin whiting or blue-nose whiting, is a common species of coastal marine fish of the family Sillaginidae, the smelt-whitings. It is a slender, slightly compressed fish that is very similar to other species of Sillago, with detailed spine, ray and lateral line scale counts needed to distinguish the species between its nearest relative Sillago analis. The sand whiting is distributed along the east coast of Australia from Cape York south to Tasmania, as well as Lord Howe Island and New Caledonia in the Pacific Ocean.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eastern school whiting</span> Species of fish

The eastern school whiting, Sillago flindersi, is a species of benthic marine fish of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The eastern school whiting is endemic to Australia, distributed along the east coast from southern Queensland down to Tasmania and South Australia, where it inhabits sandy substrates from shallow tidal flats to depths of 180 m on the continental shelf. Eastern school whiting prey on various crustaceans and polychaete worms, with the diet varying seasonally and throughout the range of the species. Eastern school whiting reproduce in the deeper waters twice a year, releasing up to 110,000 eggs during a season.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indian whiting</span> Species of fish

The Indian whiting is a poorly known species of coastal marine fish of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The species was named in 1985, having previously being misidentified as another species of Sillago, S. parvisquamis. The Indian whiting inhabits the east and west coasts of the Indian subcontinent, apparently not extending to the southern tip of India. Like all sillaginids, it is benthic in nature, living in depths to 30 m where it is caught by fishermen alongside other species of Sillago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bay whiting</span> Species of fish

The bay whiting is a species of coastal marine fish of the smelt-whiting family, Sillaginidae. The bay whiting's range extends throughout the west Indian Ocean, including northern Australia, Thailand, India and Taiwan, where it inhabits protected waters. It is benthic in nature, preying on shrimps, polychaetes and molluscs, however little else is known of its biology. Bay whiting are an important part of some inshore fisheries around Australia and Asia, where subsistence and commercial fishermen regularly take the species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Japanese whiting</span> Species of fish

The Japanese whiting, Sillago japonica, is a common species of coastal marine fish belonging to the smelt-whiting family, Sillaginidae. As suggested by its name, the Japanese whiting was first recorded from Japan in 1843, but has subsequently been found to extend to Korea, China and Taiwan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trumpeter whiting</span> Species of fish

The trumpeter whiting, Sillago maculata, is a common species of coastal marine fish of the smelt-whiting family, Sillaginidae. The trumpeter whiting is endemic to Australia, inhabiting the eastern seaboard from southern New South Wales to northern Queensland. The species is found in bays, estuaries, coastal lakes and mangrove creeks on silty and muddy substrates in waters ranging from 0 to 30 m deep, occasionally inhabiting sandy and seagrass beds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Northern whiting</span> Species of fish

The northern whiting, also known as the silver whiting and sand smelt, is a marine fish, the most widespread and abundant member of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The northern whiting was the first species of sillaginid scientifically described and is therefore the type species of both the family Sillaginidae and the genus Sillago. The species is distributed in the Indo-Pacific region from South Africa in the west to Japan and Indonesia in the east, also becoming an invasive species to the Mediterranean through the Suez Canal. The northern whiting inhabits coastal areas to 60 m, but is most often found in shallow water around bays and estuaries, often entering freshwater. It is a carnivore, taking a variety of polychaetes and crustaceans. The species is of major economic importance throughout the Indo-Pacific. It is most frequently taken by seine nets and cast nets and marketed fresh.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Small-scale whiting</span> Species of fish

The small-scale whiting, is a species of inshore marine fish of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The small-scale whiting is very similar in body shape and colour to other species in the genus Sillago, but is distinguished by having 12 or 13 spines in the first dorsal fin compared to 11 in all other species. The species is distributed through parts of the west Pacific Ocean including Japan, Taiwan, Korea and India, inhabiting the tidal flats of major estuaries. It is a benthic predator taking crustaceans, molluscs and annelids. Spawning in the species takes place from May to September, with peaks identified in June and July. The eggs and larvae have been extensively studied in order to distinguish them from the more abundant Sillago sihama. Minor fisheries exist for the small-scale whiting, although it is thought be endangered by habitat loss and pollutionIUCN.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western school whiting</span> Species of fish

The western school whiting, also known as the banded whiting, golden whiting and bastard whiting, is a species of benthic marine fish in the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The species is one of three 'school whiting' that inhabit southern Australia and share a very similar appearance. Western school whiting are known to grow to 30 cm in length and 275 g in weight, although unconfirmed reports suggest this might be an underestimate. The western school whiting is distributed along the Western Australian coast from Maud Landing in the north to Rottnest Island in the south. The species inhabits both shallow inshore environments and waters to depths of 55 m. The species is a benthic predator, taking a variety of crustaceans, molluscs and echinoderms, and shows a change in diet with age and habitat. S. vittata is a multiple spawner, reproducing between December and February once it has reached one or two years of age. Juveniles inhabit protected inshore waters, moving offshore once they reach sexual maturity. It is often found in association with other sillaginids and comprises a minor fraction of commercial whiting catches in Western Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stout whiting</span> Species of fish

The stout whiting, also known as the yellow-cheek whiting or school whiting, is a species of benthic marine fish in the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. Like other sillaginids, it is an elongate, slightly compressed fish, growing to a maximum known length of 30 cm. The stout whiting is endemic to Australia, with the species divided into western and eastern populations, with the western population ranging from Shark Bay to Fremantle and the eastern population from Bustard Head, Queensland to northern New South Wales. The species inhabits deep, sandy continental shelf regions to a depth of at least 70 m.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yellowfin whiting</span> Species of fish

The yellowfin whiting, also known as the western sand whiting or fine-scaled whiting, is a species of inshore marine fish in the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The species is endemic to the eastern Indian Ocean, ranging from Dampier, Western Australia to Gulf St Vincent in South Australia, with an apparent division in the populations of the two states. Yellowfin whiting inhabit relatively shallow waters for their entire life, often found on tidal flats and creeks, as well as large estuaries. It is one of the largest members of the smelt-whiting family, growing to 42 cm, and can be distinguished by a number of anatomical and colour related features. Yellowfin whiting are benthic carnivores, preying predominantly on polychaete worms, with minor amounts of copepods, amphipods and bivalves also commonly taken. The species shows a change in diet with age, and also dietary differences with other sillaginids presumably to minimize competition. Reproduction occurs at different times throughout its range, generally focused around summer, with up to 217,000 eggs produced per season. Yellowfin whiting reach sexual maturity at around 20 cm, with each individual spawning more than once. The species forms the basis of major fisheries in both Shark Bay, Western Australia and the two Gulfs of South Australia, with around 260 tonnes of fish taken each year. They are also a popular target for shore based anglers, with a reputation as a very good table fish.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Smelt-whiting fishing</span>

Smelt-whiting is the common name for various species of the family Sillaginidae. The Sillaginidae are distributed throughout the Indo-Pacific region, ranging from the west coast of Africa to Japan and Taiwan in the east, as well occupying as a number of small islands including New Caledonia in the Pacific Ocean. Well known members of this family include King George whiting, Japanese whiting, northern whiting, sand whiting and school whiting.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Bray, D. "King George Whiting, Sillaginodes punctata". Fishes of Australia. Archived from the original on 11 March 2020. Retrieved 26 August 2014.
  2. ↑ "Sillaginodes punctatus". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
  3. 1 2 Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2014). "Sillaginodes punctatus" in FishBase . November 2014 version.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 McKay, R.J. (1992). FAO Species Catalogue: Vol. 14. Sillaginid Fishes Of The World (PDF). Food and Agricultural Organisation. pp. 19–20. ISBN   92-5-103123-1.
  5. 1 2 McKay, R.J. (1985). "A Revision of the Fishes of the Family Sillaginidae". Memoirs of the Queensland Museum. 22 (1): 1–73.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Hutchins, B. & Swainston, R. (1986). Sea Fishes of Southern Australia. Complete Field Guide for Anglers and Divers. Melbourne: Swainston Publishing. p. 187.
  7. ↑ Kuiter, R.H. (1993). Coastal fishes of south-eastern Australia. U.S.A: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN   1-86333-067-4.
  8. ↑ Robertson, A.I. (1977). "Ecology of Juvenile King George Whiting Sillaginodes punctatus (Cuvier & Valenciennes) (Pisces: Perciformes) in Western Port, Victoria". Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. CSIRO. 28 (1): 35–43. doi:10.1071/mf9770035.
  9. 1 2 Hyndes, G.A.; Platell, M.E. & Potter, I.C. (1997). "Relationships between diet and body size, mouth morphology, habitat and movements of six sillaginid species in coastal waters: implications for resource partitioning". Marine Biology. 128 (4): 585–598. doi:10.1007/s002270050125. S2CID   84171376.
  10. ↑ Gunn, J.S. & Wilward, N.E. (1985). "The food, feeding habits and feeding structures of the whiting species Sillago sihama (Forsskål) and Sillago analis Whitley from Townsville, North Queensland, Australia". Journal of Fish Biology. Fisheries Society of the British Isles. 26 (4): 411–427. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1985.tb04281.x.
  11. ↑ Coleman, N. & Mobley, M. (1984). "Diets of Commercially Exploited Fish from Bass Strait and Adjacent Victorian Waters, South-eastern Australia". Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. CSIRO. 35 (5): 549–560. doi:10.1071/mf9840549.
  12. ↑ Kailola, P.J.; Williams, M.J.; Stewart, R.E.; et al. (1993). "Australian fisheries resources". Bureau of Resource Sciences.
  13. ↑ Humphries, P.; Hyndes, G.A. & Potter, I.C. (1992). "Comparisons between the diets of distant taxa (Teleost and Cormorant) in an Australian estuary". Estuaries. Springer New York. 15 (3): 327–334. doi:10.2307/1352780. JSTOR   1352780. S2CID   84801870.
  14. ↑ Long, M.; Reid, R.J. & Kemper, C.M. (1997). "Cadmium accumulation and toxicity in the bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncatus, the common dolphin Delphinus delphis, and some dolphin prey species in South Australia". Australian Mammalogy. Australian Mammal Society. 21 (1): 25–33. Archived from the original on July 19, 2008.
  15. ↑ McGarvey, R. & Fowler, A.J. (2002). "Seasonal growth of King George whiting (Sillaginodes punctata) estimated from length-at-age samples of the legal size harvest". Fishery Bulletin. 100 (3): 545–558. Archived from the original on 2006-02-09.
  16. ↑ Lenanton, R.C.J. (1982). "Alternative Non estuarine Nursery Habitats for some Commercially and Recreationally Important Fish Species of South-western Australia". Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. CSIRO. 33 (5): 881–900. doi:10.1071/mf9820881.
  17. ↑ Jenkins, G.P. & Welsford, D.C. (2002). "The swimming abilities of recently settled post-larvae of Sillaginodes punctata". Journal of Fish Biology. Blackwell Synergy. 60 (4): 1043–1050. doi:10.1006/jfbi.2002.1914.
  18. ↑ Scott, T.D.; Glover, C.J. & Southcott, R.V. (1990). The Marine and Freshwater Fishes of south Australia (2nd ed.). Adelaide: State handbook Committee, Government Printer.
  19. ↑ Horrobin, P. (1997). Guide to Favourite Australian Fish. Singapore: Universal Magazines. pp. 104–105.
  20. 1 2 Starling, S. (1988). The Australian Fishing Book. Hong Kong: Bacragas Pty. Ltd. p. 490. ISBN   0-7301-0141-X.
  21. ↑ FishVictoria. "Whiting, King George". Archived from the original on 2007-08-21. Retrieved 2020-02-17.
  22. ↑ Primary Industries SA (15 August 2019). "King George whiting". Archived from the original on 30 August 2007. Retrieved 21 July 2007.
  23. ↑ Western angler. "King George whiting". Archived from the original on 2007-09-09.
  24. ↑ Partridge, G. (2000). Further development of techniques for the culture of King George whiting for commercial aquaculture or for enhancement of fish stocks in Western Australia – Final Report. Fremantle: Challenger TAFE.
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