White-eared titi monkey

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White-eared titi
White-eared titi (Callicebus donacophilus).jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Family: Pitheciidae
Genus: Plecturocebus
Species:
P. donacophilus
Binomial name
Plecturocebus donacophilus
(d'Orbigny, 1836)
White-eared Titi area.png
White-eared titi range
Synonyms

Callicebus donacophilusd'Orbigny, 1836

The white-eared titi monkey (Plecturocebus donacophilus) also known as the Bolivian titi or Bolivian gray titi, is a species of titi monkey, a type of New World monkey, from eastern Bolivia and an area of western Brazil. The species has a range that extends east from the Manique River in Beni Department, Bolivia to southern Rondônia in Brazil. The southern end of its range includes forests around the city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra.

Contents

It is a medium-sized monkey with a grey back, orange underside and distinctive white ear tufts. It has an omnivorous diet, eating fruits, other plant materials and invertebrates. It is predated upon primarily by raptors, though felids and other monkey species have been known to attack the species. It is a monogamous species and lives in small groups of two to seven members consisting of the pair and their offspring. The family group has a home range of 0.5 to 14 hectares (1.2 to 34.6 acres) and the adults have a complex vocal repertoire to maintain their territory. It is also known for its characteristic twining of tails when groups are sitting together. White-eared titis can live for more than 25 years in captivity.

The white-eared titi population has a declining trend. The decline is believed to be mainly caused by human-induced habitat loss and degradation. Despite this, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classified the species as being of least concern in 2008 as it has shown adaptability to habitat disturbance and is found over a wide range.

Taxonomy

The white-eared titi belongs to the New World monkey family Pitheciidae, which contains the titis, saki monkeys (Pithecia), bearded sakis (Chiropotes), and uakaris (Cacajao). It is a member of the subfamily Callicebinae. It was first described as Callicebus donacophilus in 1836, [2] [3] [4] but was reassessed based on molecular evidence and recombined as a species within the genus Plecturocebus . [5]

Within the new genus Plecturocebus, the white-eared titi is part of the P. donacophilus group with the Rio Beni titi (P. modestus), Rio Mayo titi (P. oenanthe), Olalla brothers' titi (P. olallae), white-coated titi (P. pallescens), and Urubamba brown titi, (P. urubambensis). [5] [4] The white-coated titi has sometimes been considered a subspecies of the white-eared titi, [6] but they are treated as separate species in the latest edition of Mammal Species of the World. [2]

Physical description

The white-eared titi is a medium-sized primate with grey to orange pelage. The species does not exhibit sexual dimorphism; the male's head and body length averages 311 millimetres (12.2 in) while females average 340 millimetres (13 in). [6] The white-eared titi's fluffy tail is longer than the length of its head and body together. [6] It typically has thick fur, with a dorsal side and limbs that vary in colour from grey agouti to orange agouti, with an orange underside and white ear tufts. [7]

Body weight ranges from around 800 to 1,200 grams (1.8 to 2.6 lb), with the female generally a little lighter. [7] It has the dental formula 2.1.3.32.1.3.3 × 2 = 36, meaning that on each side of the jaw it has two incisors, one canine tooth, three premolars, and three molar teeth. [8] The canine teeth are relatively short when compared with other New World monkeys. [9] In captivity, the white-eared titi has been known to live for over 25 years. [10]

Behaviour

The white-eared titi is cryptic, diurnal and known to live in small family groups. [11] [12] It is a monogamous species that is thought to mate for life and lives in groups that usually consist of two to seven members; an adult pair and up to five young. [13] [14] [15] [16] Multi-male groups have also been recorded. [17] Offspring are carried by the male, and are always with them, except when feeding. [18] Between the ages of two to four years, offspring will disperse from the natal group, with females leaving earlier than the males. [16] [19]

Young are carried during their first few months. Callicebus-donacophilus 09.jpg
Young are carried during their first few months.

There is a strong bond between the adult mating pair, they stay close and carry out activities together. [18] [20] [21] [22] Either member of the pair may follow the other and leadership changes through the day. Evidence of the strength of the pair bond is shown by grooming, huddling together with their tails twined, nuzzling, and gentle grasping. [18] Titi monkeys are highly territorial [23] and when confronted with another family group, both will respond with threatening behaviour, males showing increased agitation towards intruding males. [21] [24] [25] [26] When not close together, the pair show a significant amount of distress and agitation. [24]

Titi monkeys are well known for their vocal communication, and have a complex repertoire of calls. The calls can be divided into two categories: high-pitched quiet calls and low-pitched loud calls. [27] [28] Vocalisations are often combined and repeated to form sequences that are used to indicate distress, conflict, play, bonding, disturbance, and to strengthen territory. [29] The high-pitched quiet calls are mostly used when the monkeys are disturbed, but may also be used before or after group calling, while foraging, or to find other members of the group. [27] [30] The loud low-pitched calls are mostly used in long distance group calling. Their function is to ensure adequate spacing between the home ranges of different family groups. [29] These vocalisations are known as duets, and generally involve the male and female. If a neighbouring group is within earshot of these calls they will respond with their own duetting. [27]

The white-eared titi has a complex vocal repertoire. White-eared titi (Callicebus donacophilus) duetting.jpg
The white-eared titi has a complex vocal repertoire.

The white-eared titi is arboreal, spending most of its time in the lower strata of the forest. [23] It may enter the main canopy when travelling longer distances [31] [32] and may also cross small areas of open ground, though the latter is rare. [11] [33] During normal movement through its environment it is quadrupedal and mostly walks, clambers and leaps, but it can also bound and climb. [32] It leaps small distances, no more than a few body lengths, between trees where vegetation is not thick enough to support its primary forms of locomotion. [31] When travelling on the ground it is said to use a "bounding movement" [7] whereby it leaps more than 1 metre (3.3 ft) off the ground. [11] [33] The titi monkey prefers branches which are less than 5 centimetres (2.0 in) in diameter and its tail never touches the support it is on. [32] [34]

Ecology

There is relatively little known about the ecology of the white-eared titi or even titi monkeys in general, [23] and few studies have focused on the white-eared titi. It is diurnal, commencing activity around sunrise and continuing until sunset. [25] [35] [36] Food availability may influence activity times; if there is an abundance of food in the warmer months when plants are fruiting titi monkeys may start earlier, or if there is a lack of food, titi monkeys may remain at the feeding tree into the evening. [36] The titi monkey usually rests during the middle of the day and has two main feeding periods, in the morning and in the afternoon. It has an increased period of feeding towards the end of the day. In total, the titi monkey is active for an average of 11.5 hours, 2.7 hours of which is spent feeding. [35] Titi monkeys sleep on branches at least 15 metres (49 ft) above the ground. In the same manner as resting during the day, titi monkeys huddle together and twine tails to sleep. [15] [25] [37]

When resting as a group white-eared titis often twine tails together. White-eared titi (Callicebus donacophilus) group.jpg
When resting as a group white-eared titis often twine tails together.

Though there is little published research on the diet of the white-eared titi, titi monkeys in general are omnivores that eat fruit, leaves, insects, and seeds. [1] [36] [38] They mostly eat leaves, especially protein-rich young leaves and leaf buds, [39] [40] so a significant period of the day is spent resting to digest the cellulose. [36] They consume more than 100 different species of plants and fruit. [19] Titi monkeys will also eat small insects (ants, moths, butterflies, and their cocoons), spiders, and can catch flying prey if it comes close to them. [19] [36] [40] [41] During the dry season there is an increased feeding time on leaves, [36] [42] and during lactation it is thought insect consumption increases to augment the protein content of the diet. [43]

The titi monkey may travel between 425 and 1,152 m (1,394 and 3,780 ft) during the day, and can maintain a home range of 0.005 to 0.14 km2 (0.0019 to 0.0541 sq mi). During the dry season there is less fruit available and therefore less need to travel large distances, so the day range may only be a third of the usual distance. [7] Its home range is often shared with other primate species including marmosets, squirrel monkeys, capuchins, owl monkeys, howler monkeys, and spider monkeys. [7] [32] It is sometimes chased from feeding sites by larger species, [44] and will generally try to avoid other primates. [19]

Habitat and distribution

The white-eared titi is found in tropical humid forests, preferring drier regions to more humid ones. [1] It is found in riparian zones and gallery forests and is clearly associated with open habitats like grasslands and swampy grasslands. [23] It is found in areas with dense vegetation, often choosing to inhabit the thickest parts of the forest. [4] The species seems to be quite tolerant of habitat disturbance. [1] [23] In Bolivia, the white-eared titi is found in the upper parts of the Mamoré, Grande, and San Miguel river basins, east of the Manique River in Beni and in the forests surrounding the city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra. [4] [1] Its range extends north to southern Rondônia in Brazil. [1] [23] [45] [6]

Conservation status

The white-eared titi is considered to be of least concern on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List. The species is not considered threatened due to its adaptability and abundance over a relatively wide range, and despite having a decreasing population trend the decline is not rapid enough to be placed in a threatened category. The species is also listed on CITES Appendix II. [1]

The white-eared titi's main threat is deforestation and habitat loss due to agriculture. The area of greatest habitat loss is around the city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, but it still survives within the city limits and on the edges of many rural establishments. It has few natural predators and is proven to be adaptable to habitat disturbance. [1] Farmland may surround and isolate areas of titi habitat which occasionally has positive benefits to the monkey. Farmers may prevent hunters on the land, thereby inadvertently protecting the species. It also appears that the titi monkey can cross open ground between forest fragments, [46] and some groups can thrive in disturbed habitats near human activities. [4] However, the fragmented habitats may prevent the establishment of new territories and decrease reproductive opportunities. [47] Forest corridors to connect fragmented forests have been proposed as an effective means to help ensure the survival of the titi monkey. [47] The white-eared titi is found in the Beni Biological Station Biosphere Reserve and the Amboro National Park in Bolivia and benefits from the protection these reserves provide. [1]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pitheciidae</span> Family of mammals

The Pitheciidae are one of the five families of New World monkeys now recognised. Formerly, they were included in the family Atelidae. The family includes the titis, saki monkeys and uakaris. Most species are native to the Amazon region of Brazil, with some being found from Colombia in the north to Bolivia in the south.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Titi monkey</span> Subfamily of New World monkeys

The titis, or titi monkeys, are New World monkeys of the subfamily Callicebinae, which contains three extant genera: Cheracebus, Callicebus, and Plecturocebus. This subfamily also contains the extinct genera Miocallicebus, Homunculus, and Carlocebus.

<i>Callicebus</i> Genus of New World monkeys

Callicebus is a genus of monkeys known as titi monkeys.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Madidi titi monkey</span> Species of New World monkey

The Madidi titi monkey, also known as the GoldenPalace.com monkey or the golden palace monkey, is a titi, a kind of New World monkey, discovered in western Bolivia's Madidi National Park in 2004. Its scientific name is Plecturocebus aureipalatii, the specific epithet meaning "of the Golden Palace", in reference to GoldenPalace.com, an online casino which paid US$650,000 to have the species named after it, with benefits going toward the nonprofit organization that maintains the park where the titi was discovered.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-fronted titi monkey</span> Species of mammal

The black-fronted titi monkey is a species of titi, a type of New World monkey.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coppery titi monkey</span> Species of New World monkey

The coppery titi monkey or red titi monkey is a species of titi monkey, a type of New World monkey, from South America. They are found in the Amazon of Brazil and Peru, and perhaps northern Bolivia. It was described as Callithrix cupreus in 1823. These monkeys have a lifespan of a little over 20 years. These monkeys eat certain fruits, insects, and plants. They live in monogamous pairs with interesting ways for vocalizing and protecting themselves from predators.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brown titi monkey</span> Species of New World monkey

The brown titi monkey is a species of titi monkey, a type of New World monkey, from South America. It is endemic to Brazil. It was originally described as Callicebus brunneus in 1842 and transferred to the newly erected genus Plecturocebus in 2016.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prince Bernhard's titi monkey</span> Species of New World monkey

Prince Bernhard's titi monkey, also called the zog-zog monkey, is a species of titi monkey in the genus Plecturocebus, first described in 2002. It is named after Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands. They have varying coloration of gray, black, and agouti, with dark orange in certain regions. They are endemic to Brazil, found mostly in disturbed forest environments. While officially listed as least-concern by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), they may, in fact, be at-risk due to human-caused deforestation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rio Mayo titi monkey</span> Species of New World monkey

The Rio Mayo titi monkey is a species of titi monkey, a type of New World monkey, endemic to Peru. The Rio Mayo titi, was thought previously to have a small range of origin in the Alto Mayo valley, but research has proven that the range extends southward and reaches the Huayamba River, as well as Bajo Mayo. It had been classified as vulnerable but due to major habitat loss and restricted living space, it is now classified as Critically Endangered. In October 2012, it was included in The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates list. An increase in deforestation is leading to the decrease in available living space for this titi monkey, forcing it to live in sympatry with another species of Callicebus. Yet in some areas, such drastic deforestation has resulted in extremely high population density. The Rio Mayo titi is better adapted to moderately populated areas, thus overpopulation negatively impacts the species. The forests the Rio Mayo titi lives in are being destroyed for agricultural purposes, leaving little forest for the monkeys. They were only seen a few times and featured in museums until 2003 when more research was done on them. In order for this species to survive, their forests need to be protected to avoid overpopulation. Different conservation groups are working to help P. oenanthe survive. Neotropical Primate Conservation, Proyecto Mono Tocón and Amazónicos para la Amazonia are working in the more southern areas to protect the monkey. The Rio Mayo titi is a fairly inconspicuous creature, making observation and research difficult to obtain. Therefore, the traditional use of transect observation to monitor the monkey's population, is less effective. Instead, other methods of calculating the titi monkey's density in certain areas have been taken, such as research into the species-specific calls endemic to a certain area.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ornate titi monkey</span> Species of New World monkey

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<i>Primate Conservation</i> (journal) Academic journal

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  38. ↑ Izawa, K.; Yoneda, M. (1981). "Habitat utilization of nonhuman primates in a forest of the western pando, Bolivia". Kyoto University Overseas Research Reports of New World Monkeys. 2: 13–22.
  39. ↑ Terborgh, J. (1985). "The ecology of Amazonian primates". In Prance, G. T.; Lovejoy, T. E. (eds.). Key environments: Amazonia. Oxford: Pergamon Press. pp. 284–304.
  40. 1 2 Crandlemire-Sacco, J. (1988). "An ecological comparison of two sympatric primates: Saguinus fuscicollis and Callicebus moloch of Amazonian Peru". Primates. 29 (4): 465–475. doi:10.1007/bf02381134. S2CID   22332355.
  41. ↑ Meritt Jr., D. A. (1980). "Captive reproduction and husbandry of the douroucouli Aotus trivirgatus and the titi monkey Callicebus spp". International Zoo Yearbook. 20: 52–59. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1090.1980.tb00942.x.
  42. ↑ Lawrence, J. M. (2007). "Understanding the pair bond in brown titi monkeys (Callicebus brunneus): male and female reproductive interests". PhD dissertation. Columbia University.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  43. ↑ Tirado Herrera, E. R.; Heymann, E. W. (2004). "Does mom need more protein? Preliminary observations on differences in diet composition in a pair of red titi monkeys, Callicebus cupreus". Folia Primatologica. 75 (3): 150–153. doi:10.1159/000078304. PMID   15240979. S2CID   40269938.
  44. ↑ Wright, P. C. (1996). "The Neotropical primate adaption to nocturnality: feeding in the night (Aotus nigriceps and A. azarae)". In Norconk, M. A.; Rosenberer, A. L.; Garber, P. A. (eds.). Adaptive radiations of neotropical primates. New York: Plenum Press. pp. 369–382.
  45. ↑ Veiga, L. M.; Barnett, A. A.; Norconk, M. A., eds. (2013). Evolutionary biology and conservation of titis, sakis and uacaris. Cambridge University Press. pp. 32–33, 328, 337, 373. ISBN   978-0-521-88158-6.
  46. ↑ Felton, A.; Felton, A. M.; Wallace, R. B.; Gómez, H. (2006). "Identification, behavioral observations, and notes on the distribution of the titi monkeys Callicebus modestus Lönnberg, 1939 and Callicebus olallae, Lönnberg 1939". Primate Conservation. 20: 41–46. doi:10.1896/0898-6207.20.1.41. S2CID   86779155.
  47. 1 2 DeLuycker, A. M. (2006). "Preliminary report and conservation status of the Río Mayo titi monkey, Callicebus oenanthe Thomas, 1924, in the Alto Mayo valley, northeastern Peru". Primate Conservation. 21: 33–39. doi: 10.1896/0898-6207.21.1.33 . S2CID   86430327.
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