White-fronted tern

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White-fronted tern
Sterna striata, Kaiaua, Firth Of Thames, Waikato, New Zealand 2.jpg
Sterna striata at Kaiaua, Firth Of Thames, Waikato, New Zealand
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Charadriiformes
Family: Laridae
Genus: Sterna
Species:
S. striata
Binomial name
Sterna striata
Gmelin, JF, 1789
SternaStriataIUCNver2018 2.png
Range of S. striata
  Resident
  Non-breeding

The white-fronted tern (Sterna striata), also known as tara, sea swallow, [2] black-billed tern, kahawai bird, southern tern, [3] or swallow tail, [4] was first described by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1789. [3] A medium-sized tern with an all-white body including underwing and forked tail, with pale grey hues on the mantle and upper side of the wing. In breeding adults a striking black cap covers the head from forehead to nape, leaving a small white strip above the black bill.

Contents

This is the most abundant tern in New Zealand. It can be observed feeding on shoaling fish along the entire coastline and many of the smaller outlying islands. Breeding occurs from October to January on rocky cliffs, offshore islands and along the coast where pairs will nest on shingle, sand, shell or rock. Flocks may contain hundreds of breeding pairs that will nest in close proximity to one another. Large numbers of juveniles and some adults migrate to the south-east coast of Australia and parts of Tasmania in the autumn, with small numbers establishing breeding colonies on Flinders and Cape Barren Islands in the Bass Strait.

Due to mammalian predators introduced to New Zealand, such as ferrets and stoats, the white-fronted tern has recently been given the New Zealand national conservation status of at risk/in decline.

Taxonomy

The white-fronted tern was formally described in 1789 by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in his revised and expanded edition of Carl Linnaeus's Systema Naturae . He placed it with the terns in the genus Sterna and coined the binomial name Sterna striata. [5] Gmelin based his description on the "striated tern" that had been described and illustrated in 1785 by the English ornithologist John Latham in his book A General Synopsis of Birds. The naturalist Joseph Banks had provided Latham with a drawing of the tern from New Zealand. [6] The drawing had been made by William Wade Ellis from a specimen collected in 1777 off the southeast coast of New Zealand's North Island on James Cook's third voyage to the Pacific Ocean. [7] The genus name Sterna comes from the Old English word for a black tern. The specific epithet is from Latin striatus meaning "striated". [8] The species is monotypic: no subspecies are recognised. [9]

The species is most closely related to roseate tern (Sterna dougallii) and black-naped tern (Sterna sumatrana), and slightly less closely related to common tern (Sterna hirundo), South American tern (Sterna hirundinacea), Antarctic tern (Sterna vittata) and Arctic tern (Sterna paradisaea). [10] [11]

Description

Sterna striata in flight with tiny fish in its beak White-fronted tern flying with tiny fish in its beak.jpg
Sterna striata in flight with tiny fish in its beak

The white-fronted tern is an average-sized tern; its dimensions are 35–43 cm (14–17 in) in length, with a wingspan between 79 and 82 cm (31 and 32 in); the male weighs on average 130 g (4.6 oz). [3] Females are marginally smaller than males, but this is difficult to determine when observing individuals in the wild. [12]

Breaking down their monochromatic colouring, the white-fronted tern's lightest features are its all-white body, tail and underwing, [13] [2] with the upper side of the wings a light silvery-grey hue. [12] Through the breeding season there can be a faint pink coloration on the breast, but this is not always visible. [12] The darkest features are the beak, black cap, eyes, feet and the shadowing on the outermost edge of the wingtips. [13] The long ebony-like bill is slender and comes to a sharp point that dulls in colour at the tip. [12] The crown is jet black, interrupted by a variably narrow white band between forehead and bill. [2] [13] The black cap continues over the crown and finishes at the nape. Inky black round eyes sit within the cap. [12] The legs are stumpy with a deep burgundy black tone. [13] A defining feature of the white-fronted tern is its forked tail, most recognisable when in flight and commonly drawing comparisons with a swallow's tail. [3] In the breeding season, the outermost feathers of the tail lengthen, accentuating the already deep fork. [12] [4]

The black cap of non-breeding adults retreats towards the top of the forehead and above the eyes, and at the same time losing some of its intensity. [3] [12] Immature white-fronted terns are similar but have speckles of white through the cap. [13] Along with a slight coloration on the wings and tail, which appear as a brownish cream. [12] The juvenile plumage is very pronounced with flecks of light to dark grey and warm milky browns on the upper side of the wing, back, and mantle. [2] the cap is incomplete and mottled, having dark black markings in front of and behind the eyes. [12]

Voice

A very dull "crek" is used in courtship when the male is flying above groups, individuals may respond with the same noise. [14] When descending upon intruders, they will let out a continuous "keark". [2] Generally calling between individuals is a high-pitched "siet" used frequently during flight, it will be repeated over and over in particular intervals. [2]

Distribution and habitat

White-fronted terns are found in New Zealand and Australia. [3] Juveniles will occasionally migrate across to south-east Australia and northern Tasmania. [15] [4] [2] Breeding populations in Australia are only observed in the Bass Strait, on Flinders and Cape Barren Islands. [2]

It is the most abundant tern in New Zealand, and lives along the entire coastline. [2] [12] [4] In the North Island, there are significant populations from Auckland to the Bay of Plenty including the Coromandel Peninsula [3] and they are widespread along the coast from Wellington, up towards Manawatu. [3] In the South Island, they are a familiar sight in the Marlborough Sounds [16] and along the east coast into Canterbury, Otago and Southland, where they can be seen year-round. Stewart Island also has flocks and breeding pairs throughout the year. [2] [3] Apart from the main coastline of New Zealand they also populate many of the smaller islands, with large numbers of breeding pairs observed on both the Chatham and the Auckland Islands. [2] They seldom head inland, but there have been recordings of them in the Canterbury area, where they travel up the large braided rivers to feed and nest. [2]

Habitat preferences

Adult pair nesting on old pier Sterna striata -Bayswater, Auckland City, New Zealand -adults and nest-8.jpg
Adult pair nesting on old pier

White-fronted terns can be found in a variety of coastal habitats. [3] With large flocks preferring coastal waters, harbours, bays and estuaries where they are content to live on either sand, shell or shingle ground. [3] [12] Occasionally living on the stony banks of Canterbury's braided rivers. [2] Not confined to just main coastal areas, white-fronted terns frequent coastal cliffs, offshore rock-stacks and small islands. [12] White-fronted terns can also be found on human-made structures. [12] as in Tauranga Harbour, where breeding pairs have taken up residence on disused concrete support structures. [17]

Behaviour and ecology

White-fronted terns have a reputation for being difficult to monitor and study due to their unpredictable nature. [2] It becomes very apparent in the breeding season, as white-fronted terns seldom return to the same breeding sites year after year, making it difficult for a clear indication of numbers and breeding results. [12]

Breeding

Courtship begins in early October when the warmth of spring has arrived and can continue into January, with individuals constantly arriving at various breeding grounds. [2] [4] [14] A male will fly in from sea with a fish delicately held in its bill; it will fly above groups of females and attempt to gain their attention by calling to them. [12] [14] The male may land and strut around with head and fish held high to attract more attention from potential mates and there may be a suggestive approach by female/s seeking to have the fish fed to them. But at this point, the male will swiftly take flight, closely followed by one or more of his potential mates. [14] The spectacle continues until there remains only one follower. The pair will land together, the male may offer the fish to the female in acceptance of courtship, or he may disapprove of the female and retain the fish for himself. [14] If accepted, the partnership begins. The pair takes to the air together following one another in a magnificent flight display, signifying successful courtship. [14] White-fronted tern are monogamous, so will stay together for the entire breeding season. [4]

Shortly after courtship, the pair will choose a spot for their nest. No real effort goes into nest-building, it can be directly onto bare ground or in a rocky area. The nest site may already have a nest-like shape to it, but sometimes small stones can be brought in to furnish the bottom of the hollow. [4] Nests are tightly packed together, sometimes with less than a metre between them. In large breeding colonies there may be hundreds of nests. [2] Laying in breeding colonies is synchronised, with large numbers of females laying on the same day. [2] [4] Some variations occur and are due to the age of the adults, with older birds laying earlier in the season. [18] They will lay 1–2 eggs and on rare occasions, 3. [18] The brown speckled eggs vary in their pale base colour, which can range from green, through blue to brown. The size of an egg is on average 46 × 33 mm. [2] The clutch is cared for by both male and female, with an incubation period of approximately 24 days. [2] Adults will continue to join the colony and lay eggs from October–January. [13]

White-fronted tern chick hiding on the ground White-fronted tern chick hiding on the ground.jpg
White-fronted tern chick hiding on the ground

The colour of the chicks is highly variable. They can be a combination of greys, browns, whites and blacks with a speckled and fluffy appearance. [14] Chicks will remain in the nest and be brooded by both adults for several days. [2] It can be up to a week before the chicks leave the nest and join others in a crèche; here they have protection due to the more substantial numbers, while adults are away foraging for food. [13] [2] When a chick is lost to a predator or natural event during the breeding season, more clutches will be laid. [2] Adults are likely to only raise only one chick to fledging, even if two eggs have been laid. Adults will care for their chick for 29-35 days, at which point they become fledged. [2] Through this time, there is substantial growth: wings and body develop to a similar size to those of the adults. [14] The young gain the ability to fly during this time, and they will start to venture out with the adults away from the colony; still being fed by the adults for up to 3 months. [2]

Juvenile white-fronted tern begging parent for food Juvenile white-fronted tern begging parent for food.jpg
Juvenile white-fronted tern begging parent for food

After the fledgling phase, there is a partial moult where they gain some of their juvenile plumage. This occurs through March-April and continues till June-July. [3] Most juveniles will stay with their flock along the New Zealand coastline with no migration. [2] However, in autumn large numbers of juveniles and some adults migrate across the Tasman Sea, arriving on the south-east coast of Australia, where they become a common sight from May to November before returning to New Zealand. [2] [12] Over the next two years, there will be moulting phases alongside the breeding adults, first pre-breeding (May–August), first post-breeding (January–August) and second pre-breeding (May–August). [3] They are slowly gaining adult plumage through each moult and by the second pre-breeding moult they appear similar to adults. [3] After two years, they have matured enough to breed. [4] However, it is a rare occurrence and is more common for adults to start breeding at 7 years old. [2] [18]

Adults can live beyond 18 years of age [4] with a record of one reaching 26 years. [2] Adults will moult twice a year, post-breeding which occurs over 6 months from January to early August and pre-breeding that starts around May/June, finishing in July/August. [3] Pre-breeding moult is where the adult's black cap will extend further down the forehead, leaving only the small band of white across the top of its bill. [12]

Food and feeding

White-fronted terns are carnivorous, [3] fishing mainly in coastal waters. However, on the odd occasion they will head inland a few kilometres, following rivers and creeks to find food. [12] Their diet is predominantly smaller fish such as smelt and pilchards [2] while also including larval fish. [4] Their preference when feeding at sea is for shoaling fish, that are being forced to the surface in large groups by kahawai and kingfish. [2] When feeding, they will dive from 3 to 10 m above the surface into the shoal of fish, just entering the water in a very shallow dive. [2] They can feed like this off the coast in huge flocks that are made up of hundreds to thousands of birds. They will feed alongside other birds such as gannets, shearwaters and gulls. [2] When diving for fish, they are highly efficient. Their forked tails and adept flying skills allow for great movement above the water surface. [4]

Predators

As of 2016, the conservation status of white-fronted tern is at risk/in decline. Even with a large population, there is a predicted decline in the coming years. [19] Numbers are falling due to predation by several introduced mammalian species. [2] [4] Adults are attacked and killed by cats, mustelids, [2] ferrets and stoats. [4] These same predators will also target the eggs and chicks, while rats and hedgehogs put further pressure on white-fronted tern by going for eggs and chicks exclusively. [2] Despite living and breeding in groups with large numbers that are tightly packed together, it seldom offers them any extra protection from the intruding attackers. [4]

Red-billed gulls and black-backed gulls are the only native species that will prey on white-fronted tern, though they only go for eggs and chicks. They often nest near the white-fronted tern, which may be a contributing factor for this behaviour. [2] Skuas are also well known to attack them in the air as they return from the sea with fish. They will intimidate them while flying until they drop the fish and catch it before losing it to the sea. [12]

Conservation status

A recent audit published by the Department of Conservation has given S. striata a New Zealand national conservation status of "At risk, declining". [19] It has also gained the regional conservation status of "Regionally Endangered" for the Wellington region. [20]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tern</span> Family of seabirds

Terns are seabirds in the family Laridae, subfamily Sterninae, that have a worldwide distribution and are normally found near the sea, rivers, or wetlands. Terns are treated in eleven genera in a subgroup of the family Laridae, which also includes several genera of gulls and the skimmers (Rynchops). They are slender, lightly built birds with long, forked tails, narrow wings, long bills, and relatively short legs. Most species are pale grey above and white below with a contrasting black cap to the head, but the marsh terns, the black-bellied tern, the Inca tern, and some noddies have dark body plumage for at least part of the year. The sexes are identical in appearance, but young birds are readily distinguishable from adults. Terns have a non-breeding plumage, which usually involves a white forehead and much-reduced black cap.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arctic tern</span> Bird that breeds in the Arctic and sub-Arctic and migrates to the Antarctic

The Arctic tern is a tern in the family Laridae. This bird has a circumpolar breeding distribution covering the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions of Europe, Asia, and North America. The species is strongly migratory, seeing two summers each year as it migrates along a convoluted route from its northern breeding grounds to the Antarctic coast for the southern summer and back again about six months later. Recent studies have shown average annual round-trip lengths of about 70,900 km (44,100 mi) for birds nesting in Iceland and Greenland and about 48,700 km (30,300 mi) for birds nesting in the Netherlands. These are by far the longest migrations known in the animal kingdom. The Arctic tern nests once every one to three years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common tern</span> Migratory seabird in the family Laridae with circumpolar distribution

The common tern is a seabird in the family Laridae. This bird has a circumpolar distribution, its four subspecies breeding in temperate and subarctic regions of Europe, Asia and North America. It is strongly migratory, wintering in coastal tropical and subtropical regions. Breeding adults have light grey upperparts, white to very light grey underparts, a black cap, orange-red legs, and a narrow pointed bill. Depending on the subspecies, the bill may be mostly red with a black tip or all black. There are several similar species, including the partly sympatric Arctic tern, which can be separated on plumage details, leg and bill colour, or vocalisations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black tern</span> Species of bird

The black tern is a small tern generally found in or near inland water that breeds in Europe, Western Asia and North America. In winter the birds migrate to coastal areas of Africa and South America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red-billed tropicbird</span> Species of seabird of tropical oceans

The red-billed tropicbird is a tropicbird, one of three closely related species of seabird of tropical oceans. Superficially resembling a tern in appearance, it has mostly white plumage with some black markings on the wings and back, a black mask and, as its common name suggests, a red bill. Most adults have tail streamers that are about two times their body length, with those in males being generally longer than those in females. The red-billed tropicbird itself has three subspecies recognized, including the nominate. The subspecies mesonauta is distinguished from the nominate by the rosy tinge of its fresh plumage, and the subspecies indicus can be differentiated by its smaller size, more restricted mask, and more orange bill. This species ranges across the tropical Atlantic, eastern Pacific, and Indian Oceans. The nominate is found in the southern Atlantic Ocean, the subspecies indicus in the waters off of the Middle East and in the Indian Ocean, and the subspecies mesonauta in the eastern portions of both the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans and in the Caribbean. It was one of the many species described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Roseate tern</span> Bird in the family Laridae

The roseate tern is a species of tern in the family Laridae. The genus name Sterna is derived from Old English "stearn", "tern", and the specific dougallii refers to Scottish physician and collector Dr Peter McDougall (1777–1814). "Roseate" refers to the bird's pink breast in breeding plumage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Royal tern</span> Species of bird

The royal tern is a tern in the family Laridae. The species is endemic to the Americas, though vagrants have been identified in Europe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forster's tern</span> Species of bird

Forster's tern is a tern in the family Laridae. The genus name Sterna is derived from Old English "stearn", "tern", and forsteri commemorates the naturalist Johann Reinhold Forster.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aleutian tern</span> Species of bird

The Aleutian tern is a migratory bird living in the subarctic region of the globe most of the year. It is frequently associated with the Arctic tern, which it closely resembles. While both species have a black cap, the Aleutian tern may be distinguished by its white forehead. During breeding season, the Arctic terns have bright red bills, feet, and legs while those of the Aleutian terns are black.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greater crested tern</span> Seabird in the family Laridae

The greater crested tern, also called crested tern, swift tern, or great crested tern, is a tern in the family Laridae that nests in dense colonies on coastlines and islands in the tropical and subtropical Old World. Its five subspecies breed in the area from South Africa around the Indian Ocean to the central Pacific and Australia, all populations dispersing widely from the breeding range after nesting. This large tern is closely related to the royal and lesser crested terns, but can be distinguished by its size and bill colour.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Least tern</span> Species of bird

The least tern is a species of tern that breeds in North America and locally in northern South America. It is closely related to, and was formerly often considered conspecific with, the little tern of the Old World. Other close relatives include the yellow-billed tern and Peruvian tern, both from South America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">New Zealand fairy tern</span> Subspecies of bird

The New Zealand fairy tern or tara-iti is a subspecies of the fairy tern endemic to New Zealand. It is New Zealand's rarest native breeding bird, with about 40 individuals left in the wild. It nests at four coastal locations between Whangārei and Auckland in the North Island. It is threatened by introduced predators, extreme storms and tides, beach activity, and waterfront development.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antarctic tern</span> Species of bird

The Antarctic tern is a seabird in the family Laridae. It ranges throughout the southern oceans and is found on small islands around Antarctica as well as on the shores of the mainland. Its diet consists primarily of small fish and crustaceans. It is very similar in appearance to the closely related Arctic tern, but it is stockier, and it is in its breeding plumage in the southern summer, when the Arctic tern has shed old feathers to get its non-breeding plumage. The Antarctic tern does not migrate like the Arctic tern does, but it can still be found on a very large range. This tern species is actually more closely related to the South American tern.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fairy tern</span> Species of bird

The fairy tern is a small tern which is native to the southwestern Pacific. It is listed as "Vulnerable" by the IUCN and the New Zealand subspecies is "Critically Endangered". Fairy terns live in colonies along the coastlines and estuaries of Australia, New Zealand, and New Caledonia, feeding largely on small, epipelagic schooling fishes, breeding in areas close to their feeding sites. They have a monogamous mating system, forming breeding pairs in which they mate, nest, and care for offspring.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-fronted tern</span> Species of bird

The black-fronted tern, also known as sea martin, ploughboy, inland tern, riverbed tern or tarapiroe, is a small tern generally found in or near bodies of fresh water in New Zealand, where it forages for freshwater fish, arthropods and worms. It has a predominantly grey plumage. Restricted to breeding in the eastern regions of the South Island, it is declining and threatened by introduced mammals and birds. It is rated as endangered on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)'s Red List of Threatened Species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Variable oystercatcher</span> Species of bird

The variable oystercatcher is a species of wader in the family Haematopodidae. It is endemic to New Zealand. The Māori name is tōrea-pango. They are also known as 'red bills'.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Damara tern</span> Species of bird

The Damara tern is a species of small tern in the family Laridae which breeds in the southern summer in southern Africa and migrates to tropical African coasts to winter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">South American tern</span> Species of bird

The South American tern is a species of tern found in coastal regions of southern South America, including the Falkland Islands, ranging north to Peru and Brazil. It is generally the most common tern in its range. The smaller, highly migratory common tern closely resembles it. The specific epithet refers to the "swallow-like" forked tail feathering.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indian skimmer</span> Species of bird

The Indian skimmer or Indian scissors-bill is one of the three species that belong to the skimmer genus Rynchops in the family Laridae. They are somewhat tern-like but like other skimmers, have a short upper mandible and the longer lower mandible that is ploughed along the surface of water as the bird flies over the water to pick aquatic prey. It is found in southern Asia, where it is patchily distributed and declining in numbers. They are mainly found in rivers or estuaries. They are very brightly marked in black, white and orange, making them difficult to miss.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-naped tern</span> Species of bird

The black-naped tern is an oceanic tern mostly found in tropical and subtropical areas of the Indian Ocean and western Pacific Ocean. They are rarely found inland. It was described from the islands around Sumatra. It is most closely related to roseate tern S. dougallii and white-fronted tern S. striata.

References

  1. ↑ BirdLife International (2019). "Sterna striata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2019: e.T22694607A155620380. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22694607A155620380.en . Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 Heather, B. D.; Robertson, H. (2015). The Field Guide to the Birds of New Zealand (Revised and updated ed.). Penguin Random House New Zealand. ISBN   978-0-143-57092-9.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Higgins, P.J.; Davies, S.J.J.F., eds. (1996). "Sterna striata White-fronted tern" (PDF). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand & Antarctic Birds. Vol. 3, Snipe to pigeons. Melbourne, Victoria: Oxford University Press. pp. 632–644. ISBN   978-0-19-553070-4.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Mills, J.A. (2013). White-fronted tern | New Zealand Birds Online.
  5. ↑ Gmelin, Johann Friedrich (1789). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae : secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. 1, Part 2 (13th ed.). Lipsiae [Leipzig]: Georg. Emanuel. Beer. p. 609.
  6. ↑ Latham, John (1785). A General Synopsis of Birds. Vol. 3, Part 2. London: Printed for Leigh and Sotheby. pp. 358–359.
  7. ↑ Medway, David G. (1976). "Extant types of New Zealand birds from Cook's voyages. Part 1: Historical and type paintings" (PDF). Notornis. 23: 44–60 [55].
  8. ↑ Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. pp.  365, 367. ISBN   978-1-4081-2501-4.
  9. ↑ Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (August 2022). "Noddies, gulls, terns, skimmers, skuas, auks". IOC World Bird List Version 12.2. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 8 November 2022.
  10. ↑ Černý, David; Natale, Rossy (2022). "Comprehensive taxon sampling and vetted fossils help clarify the time tree of shorebirds (Aves, Charadriiformes)" (PDF). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 177: 107620. doi: 10.1016/j.ympev.2022.107620 . Retrieved 2024-12-22.
  11. ↑ Gochfeld, M; Burger, J; Garcia, E (2019). del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi; Christie, David A; de Juana, Eduardo (eds.). "White-fronted Tern (Sterna striata)" . Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. Retrieved 2 March 2019.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Medway, D.G (2000). The Reed field guide to common New Zealand shorebirds. Reed books. ISBN   0-7900-0738-X.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Fitter, Julian; Merton, Don (2011). A field guide to the birds of New Zealand. Princeton University Press. ISBN   978-0-691-15351-3.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Stead, E.F (1932). The life histories of New Zealand birds. London, England: Search publishing.
  15. ↑ Chambers, Stuart (2009). Birds of New Zealand : Locality guide (3rd ed.). New Zealand: Arun Books. ISBN   978-0-473-15307-6.
  16. ↑ Schuckard, R (2005). "Marlborough Sounds, an important nesting and wintering area for white-fronted terns (Sterna striata)". Notornis. 52 (3): 165–167.
  17. ↑ McLean, I.G; Fleming, A.L (2018). "Successful restoration of an unnatural breeding habitat for white-fronted terns (Sterna striata)". Notornis. 65 (1): 54–58. ISSN   0029-4470.
  18. 1 2 3 Mills, J.A; Shaw, P.W (1980). "The influence of age on laying date, clutch size, and egg size of the white-fronted tern, Sterna striata". New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 7 (1): 147–153. doi: 10.1080/03014223.1980.10423772 .
  19. 1 2 Robertson, H.A; Baird, K; Dowding, J.E; Elliott, G.P; Hitchmough, R.A; Miskelly, C.M; McArthur, N; O'Donnell, C.F.J; Sagar, P.M; Scofield, R.P; Taylor, G.A (2017). Conservation status of New Zealand birds, 2016. Wellington, New Zealand: Department of Conservation. ISBN   978-1-98-851423-9.
  20. ↑ McArthur, Nikki; Ray, Samantha; Crowe, Patrick; Bell, Mike (August 2019). A baseline survey of the indigenous bird values of the Wellington region coastline (PDF) (Report). p. 23.
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