1877 Iquique earthquake

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1877 Iquique earthquake
South America laea relief location map.jpg
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Iquique
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Santiago
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Local dateMay 9, 1877 (1877-05-09)
Local time21:16
Magnitude8.5 Ms
8.7–8.9 Mw
9.0 Mt [1]
Epicenter 19°36′S70°12′W / 19.6°S 70.2°W / -19.6; -70.2
Areas affected Peru, Tarapacá Region and Bolivia, Antofagasta Region (both now part of Chile)
Max. intensity MMI XI (Extreme)
TsunamiYes
Casualties2,385

The 1877 Iquique earthquake occurred at 21:16 local time on 9 May (0:59 on 10 May UTC). It had a magnitude of 8.5 on the surface-wave magnitude scale. [2] Other estimates of its magnitude have been as high as 8.9 Mw and 9.0 Mt (based on the size of the tsunami). [1] It had a maximum intensity of XI (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale [3] and triggered a devastating tsunami. A total of 2,385 people died, [3] mainly in Fiji from the tsunami.

Contents

Historical context

Affected areas in what was then part of Bolivia but is now the Antofagasta region of Chile, had during this period been subject to the Atacama border dispute between the two countries. Under the 1874 boundary treaty between Bolivia and Chile, the border between the two nations as of 1877 followed the 24th parallel south. The terms of that treaty required that Bolivia not levy taxes on Chilean companies mining nitrates between the 23rd and 24th parallels (including the city of Antofagasta) for 25 years, except for agreed duties to be shared between the two countries. [4]

Following extensive damage in the 1877 earthquake and tsunami, the municipal authorities in Antofagasta voted for a tax of 10 centavos per quintal (approximately 46 kg or 101 lb) of nitrates exported to fund reconstruction of the town. [4] The Chilean Antofagasta Nitrate & Railway Company, a major nitrate mining company in the region, refused to pay, backed by the Chilean government. This dispute resulted in the War of the Pacific, fought from 1879 to 1884, [4] by which Chile gained control of territory as far north as Tacna, including Bolivia's entire coastline.

Tectonic setting

Coastal regions of Peru and Chile lie above the convergent boundary, where the Nazca plate is being subducted beneath the South American plate along the line of the Peru–Chile Trench. The rate of convergence across this boundary is measured at about 8 cm (3.1 in) per year. This boundary has been the site of many great megathrust earthquakes, in addition to events caused by faulting within both the subducting and over-riding plates. [5]

Damage

The earthquake shaking caused significant damage over most of the coastal parts of the Tarapacá and Antofagasta Regions. The tsunami caused a 10 m (33 ft) wave along about 500 km (310 mi) of coast, from Arica in the north to Mejillones in the south. [6] At Arica the water reached the cathedral. [ citation needed ] The hulk of the U.S. gunboat Wateree, which had been beached hundreds of metres inland by the final wave of the tsunami triggered by the 1868 Arica earthquake, was moved several kilometres to the north along the coast and nearer the shoreline. [7] The tsunami caused 2,000 deaths in Fiji, and another 5 in Hilo, Hawaii. [8]

Characteristics

Earthquake

The shaking lasted for five minutes at Caleta Pabellón de Pica, a coastal town 70 km (43 mi) south of Iquique. The area of felt intensity of VIII on the Mercalli intensity scale or greater, extended from about 50 km (31 mi) south of Arica to just south of Cobija. This indicates a rupture length of about 420 km (260 mi). [1]

Tsunami

The tsunami affected the coasts of Peru and northern Chile and was observed across the Pacific Ocean, in Australia, New Zealand, Samoa, Tonga, Fiji, Hawaii, Mexico, California and Japan. [8] [9] At Arica eight separate large waves were recorded. [10]

Future earthquake hazard

The rupture area of the 1877 earthquake has been recognised as one of the major seismic gaps on the plate boundary, known as the "Northern Chile Seismic Gap". The Mw = 7.7 2007 Tocopilla earthquake occurred at the southern edge of the gap, but is not considered to have necessarily reduced the risk of a great megathrust earthquake within this area. [5] In 2005, a recurrence period of 135 years was estimated for great earthquakes along this part of the plate boundary, suggesting that a similar earthquake to the 1877 event was likely in the early 21st century. [11] The 2014 Iquique earthquake struck in the same seismic gap with a magnitude of Mw  = 8.2.

See also

Related Research Articles

The Peru–Chile Trench, also known as the Atacama Trench, is an oceanic trench in the eastern Pacific Ocean, about 160 kilometres (99 mi) off the coast of Peru and Chile. It reaches a maximum depth of 8,065 m (26,460 ft) below sea level in Richards Deep and is approximately 5,900 km (3,666 mi) long; its mean width is 64 km (40 mi) and it covers an expanse of some 590,000 km2 (230,000 sq mi).

Megathrust earthquakes occur at convergent plate boundaries, where one tectonic plate is forced underneath another. The earthquakes are caused by slip along the thrust fault that forms the contact between the two plates. These interplate earthquakes are the planet's most powerful, with moment magnitudes (Mw) that can exceed 9.0. Since 1900, all earthquakes of magnitude 9.0 or greater have been megathrust earthquakes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2001 southern Peru earthquake</span> 2001 severe earthquake centered in Arequipa Region, Peru

The 2001 southern Peru earthquake occurred at 20:33:15 UTC on June 23 with a moment magnitude of 8.4 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of XII (Extreme). The quake affected the Peruvian regions of Arequipa, Moquegua and Tacna. It was the most devastating earthquake in Peru since the catastrophic 1970 Ancash earthquake and globally the largest earthquake since the 1965 Rat Islands earthquake.

The 1957 Andreanof Islands earthquake occurred at 04:22 local time on March 9 with a moment magnitude estimated at 8.6 and a maximum Modified Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe). It occurred south of the Andreanof Islands group, which is part of the Aleutian Islands arc. The event occurred along the Aleutian Trench, the convergent plate boundary that separates the Pacific plate and the North American plates near Alaska. A basin-wide tsunami followed, with effects felt in Alaska and Hawaii, and strong waves recorded across the Pacific rim. Total losses were around $5 million.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2007 Tocopilla earthquake</span>

The 2007 Tocopilla earthquake occurred on November 14 at 12:40:50 local time. Its epicenter was located between Quillagua and Tocopilla, affecting the Tarapacá and the Antofagasta regions in northern Chile. The earthquake had a moment magnitude of 7.7 and lasted about 3 minutes and 35 seconds. Seventeen aftershocks of magnitude greater than 5.3, including one of magnitude 7.1 and two others of magnitude 6.3 or higher, were recorded. The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center issued a tsunami warning, stating a tsunami had been generated; after one hour, this warning was cancelled. The earthquake was felt from Santiago, 1,245 km south from the epicenter, to La Paz, about 700 km north-northeast.

The 1995 Antofagasta earthquake occurred on July 30 at 05:11 UTC with a moment magnitude of 8.0 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VII. The Antofagasta Region in Chile was affected by a moderate tsunami, with three people killed, 58 or 59 injured, and around 600 homeless. Total damage from the earthquake and tsunami amounted to $1.791 million.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1868 Arica earthquake</span> Chilean earthquake and Pacific Ocean tsunami

The 1868 Arica earthquake occurred on 13 August 1868, near Arica, then part of Peru, now part of Chile, at 21:30 UTC. It had an estimated magnitude between 8.5 and 9.3. A tsunami in the Pacific Ocean was produced by the earthquake, which was recorded in Hawaii, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1944 Tōnankai earthquake</span> Earthquake and tsunami affecting southern Japan

The 1944 Tōnankai earthquake occurred at 13:35 local time on 7 December. It had an estimated magnitude of 8.1 on the moment magnitude scale and a maximum felt intensity of greater than 5 Shindo. It triggered a large tsunami that caused serious damage along the coast of Wakayama Prefecture and the Tōkai region. Together, the earthquake and tsunami caused 3,358 casualties.

The 1746 Lima–Callao earthquake occurred at 22:30 local time on 28 October with a moment magnitude of 8.6–8.8 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme). The epicenter was located about 90 km (56 mi) north-northwest of the capital Lima, which was almost completely destroyed, and the subsequent tsunami devastated the port city of Callao. It was the deadliest earthquake in Peru's history prior to the 1970 earthquake.

The November 1960 Peru earthquake occurred offshore northern Peru on November 20 at 17:02 local time. The magnitude of the earthquake was Ms  6.75 by using the conventional surface-wave magnitude measurement within a shorter duration of ~20 s. However, there is a large discrepancy between the magnitudes in Ms  and Mw  in this earthquake. The discrepancy was caused from the earthquake's long source duration of about 130 s, and by calculating the seismic moment, the magnitude would be Mw  7.6 or Mw  7.8, according to different sources. This earthquake belongs to a category of earthquakes with slow rupture velocities and potential of producing tsunamis larger than those expected from the moment magnitudes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2014 Iquique earthquake</span> Earthquake near Chile

The 2014 Iquique earthquake struck off the coast of Chile on 1 April, with a moment magnitude of 8.2, at 20:46 local time. The epicenter of the earthquake was approximately 95 kilometres (59 mi) northwest of Iquique. The mainshock was preceded by a number of moderate to large shocks and was followed by a large number of moderate to very large aftershocks, including a M7.7 event on 3 April. The megathrust earthquake triggered a tsunami of up to 2.11 metres (6.9 ft) that hit Iquique at 21:05 local time. Similar-sized tsunamis were also reported to have hit the coasts of Pisagua and Arica.

The 1940 Lima earthquake occurred on May 24 at 11:35 a.m. PST with a magnitude of Mw 8.2 on the moment magnitude scale. Shaking from this powerful earthquake was felt throughout the country, and in Ecuador and Chile. An estimated 179 to 300 people died while 3,500 left injured by the earthquake. The earthquake was centered near the coastal cities of Huacho and Huaura, about 150 km (93 mi) north of the Peruvian capital, Lima. There was a tsunami of up to 2 m that did not cause damage.

The 1839 Martinique earthquake occurred on the morning of January 11 with an estimated magnitude of 7.8 Ms , the largest in the Lesser Antilles since 1690. The maximum intensity of this earthquake was assigned IX on both the Mercalli and MSK intensity scales, which left the cities of Saint-Pierre and Fort Royal almost completely destroyed. Estimation on the number of human losses varies from 390 to 4,000 making this one of the deadliest earthquakes in the Caribbean.

The 1604 Arica earthquake is an earthquake that occurred at 1:30 pm on November 24, 1604, offshore Arica, Chile. The estimated magnitude range is Ms8.0–8.5 and up to Mw8.7–9.0 and Mt8.8–9.0. It had a destructive tsunami that destroyed moust of Southern Peru, including Arica and Arequipa. 1,200–2,800 km (750–1,740 mi) of coastline was affected by the tsunami. The recorded effects of this earthquake are very similar to those for the 1868 Arica event, suggesting a similar magnitude and rupture area of the megathrust between the subducting Nazca plate and the overriding South American plate. Tsunami deposits have been identified on the Chatham Islands that are likely to have been caused by a trans-Pacific tsunami caused by the 1604 earthquake.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2021 Chignik earthquake</span> 7th largest earthquake in the US

An earthquake occurred off the coast of the Alaska Peninsula on July 28, 2021, at 10:15 p.m. local time. The large megathrust earthquake had a moment magnitude of 8.2 according to the United States Geological Survey (USGS). A tsunami warning was issued by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) but later cancelled. The mainshock was followed by a number of aftershocks, including three that were of magnitude 5.9, 6.1 and 6.9 respectively.

The 1586 Lima–Callao earthquake occurred on July 9 along the coast of Peru, near the capital Lima. A section of the Peruvian coast, stretching from Caravelí to Trujillo, north to south, was severely damaged by the earthquake. Major destruction occurred in the capital city Lima as well. The estimated moment magnitude (Mw ) 8.1 earthquake triggered a locally damaging tsunami up to 5 m (16 ft). This was the first major earthquake to strike the city of Lima since its establishment in 1535.

The 1979 Petatlán earthquake, also known as the IBERO earthquake occurred on March 14 at 05:07 local time in the Mexican state of Guerrero. The earthquake had a surface-wave magnitude of Ms  7.6 or moment magnitude of Mw  7.4 and maximum Modified Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe). The epicenter, onshore, was located 12 km south southeast of Vallecitos de Zaragoza.

During April 1819, the area around Copiapó in northern Chile was struck by a sequence of earthquakes over a period of several days. The largest of these earthquakes occurred on 11 April at about 15:00 local time, with an estimated magnitude of Mw 8.5. The other two events, on 3 April between 08:00 and 09:00 local time and on 4 April at 16:00 local time, are interpreted as foreshocks to the mainshock on 11 April. The mainshock triggered a tsunami that affected 800 km of coastline and was also recorded at Hawaii. The city of Copiapó was devastated.

The 1950 Calama earthquake occurred near the Argentina–Chile border with an epicenter near Calama, Chile in the Atacama Desert on December 9. The event had a hypocenter depth of 113.9 km, beneath the Caichinque volcanic complex. It measured magnitude Mw  8.2 on the moment magnitude scale, making it the largest intermediate depth earthquake ever recorded on Chilean soil. One person was killed and an unspecified number of people were injured in Calama.

The 1784 Peru earthquake occurred at 07:35 local time on 13 May with a moment magnitude of 8.4 and maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme). It affected southern Peru and generated a tsunami of 2–4 m ; the region was previously affected by magnitude 8.0 or greater earthquakes in 1604 and 1687.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Comte, D.; Pardo M. (1991). "Reappraisal of Great Historical Earthquakes in the Northern Chile and Southern Peru Seismic Gaps". Natural Hazards. 4 (1): 23–44. Bibcode:1991NatHa...4...23C. doi:10.1007/bf00126557. S2CID   140190546.
  2. ↑ (in Spanish) Servicio sismológico Universidad de Chile, Sismos importantes o destructivos desde 1570.
  3. 1 2 National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS): NCEI/WDS Global Significant Earthquake Database. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (1972). "Significant Earthquake Information". NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. doi:10.7289/V5TD9V7K . Retrieved 1 August 2022.
  4. 1 2 3 Bruce W. Farcau (2000). The Ten Cents War: Chile, Peru, and Bolivia in the War of the Pacific, 1879–1884. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 39, 40. ISBN   978-0-275-96925-7.
  5. 1 2 Delouis, B.; Pardo M., Legrand D. & Monfret T. (2009). "The Mw 7.7 Tocopilla Earthquake of 14 November 2007 at the Southern Edge of the Northern Chile Seismic Gap: Rupture in the Deep Part of the Coupled Plate Interface" (PDF). Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. 99 (1): 87–94. Bibcode:2009BuSSA..99...87D. doi:10.1785/0120080192. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 July 2011.
  6. ↑ Hatori, T. (1968). "Study on distant tsunamis along the Coast of Japan. Part 2, tsunamis of South American origin" (PDF). Bulletin of the Earthquake Research Institute. 46: 345–359. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-08-07. Retrieved 2 January 2011.
  7. ↑ Kovach, R.L. (2004). Early earthquakes of the Americas. Cambridge University Press. p. 138. ISBN   978-0-521-82489-7.
  8. 1 2 National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service: NCEI/WDS Global Historical Tsunami Database. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. "Tsunami Runups". NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. doi:10.7289/V5PN93H7 . Retrieved 1 August 2022.
  9. ↑ An oceanic perturbation, Otago Daily Times, Issue 4753, 12 May 1877, Page 2
  10. ↑ NGDC. "Runup Information" . Retrieved 1 August 2022.
  11. ↑ Zamudio, Y.; Berrocal J. & Fernandes C. (2005). "Seismic hazard assessment in the Peru-Chile border region" (PDF). 6th International Symposium on Andean Geodynamics (ISAG 2005, Barcelona), Extended Abstracts. pp. 813–816. Retrieved 2 January 2011.

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