Because of seismic and volcanic activity associated with tectonicplate boundaries along the Pacific Ring of Fire, tsunamis occur most frequently in the Pacific Ocean,[1] but are a worldwide natural phenomenon. They are possible wherever large bodies of water are found, including inland lakes, where they can be caused by landslides and glacier calving. Very small tsunamis, non-destructive and undetectable without specialized equipment, occur frequently as a result of minor earthquakes and other events.
As early as 426 BC, the Greek historian Thucydides inquired in his book History of the Peloponnesian War (3.89.1–6) about the causes of tsunamis. He argued that such events could only be explained as a consequence of ocean earthquakes, and could see no other possible causes.[3]
An astronomical object between 37 and 58 kilometres (23 and 36mi) wide traveling at 20 kilometres (12.4mi) per second struck the Earth east of what is now Johannesburg, South Africa, near South Africa's border with Eswatini, in what was then an Archean ocean that covered most of the planet, creating a crater about 500 kilometres (310mi) wide. The impact generated a megatsunami that probably extended to a depth of thousands of meters beneath the surface of the ocean and rose to the height of a skyscraper when it reached shorelines.[4][5][6]
An asteroid10 kilometres (6.2mi) in diameter struck the Earth, generating a megatsunami with an initial wave height of 1,500 metres (4,920ft) which struck coastlines in the Gulf of Mexico with waves 100 metres (330ft) tall and reached heights of up to 14 metres (46ft) in the North Atlantic and South Pacific.[7][8][9][10][11][12][13] The impact also triggered giant landslides and slumps which produced additional megatsunamis of various sizes in the region,[14] and seismic waves from it caused seiches of 10 metres (33ft) to 100 metres (330ft) in height in an inland sea at Tanis, 3,000 kilometres (1,860mi) away.[15]
One-third of the East Molokai volcano collapsed into the Pacific Ocean, generating a tsunami with an estimated local height of 2,000 feet (610m). The wave traveled as far as California and Mexico.[16][17][18]
A destructive series of eruptions caused a large collapse of part of the northern flank of the island and the central pre-Teide volcanic structure (known as the Cañadas edifice), causing a megatsunami in two phases, leaving deposits at 132 m high on the north-west of the island.[19][20]
A tsunami at least 400 metres (1,312ft) in height deposited marine sediments at a modern-day elevation of 326 metres (1,070ft) – 375 to 425 metres (1,230 to 1,394ft) above sea level at the time the wave struck – on Lanai. The tsunami also deposited such sediments at an elevation of 60 to 80 metres (197 to 262ft) on Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and the island of Hawaii.[21]
The eastern flank of the island of Fogo collapsed into the sea, generating a megatsunami. The wave struck Santiago, 55 kilometres (34mi; 30nmi) away, where it was at least 170 metres (558ft) tall and a had a run-up height of 270 metres (886ft). The wave deposited giant boulders on Santiago at elevations of up to 220 metres (722ft) and as far as 650 metres (2,133ft) inland.[22]
A megatsunami had a run-up of at least 16 metres (52ft) and traveled between 1.5 and 3.5km (0.9 and 2.2mi) inland from the ancient Eastern Mediterranean coast.[23]
A 25-cubic-kilometre (6cumi) landslide on the eastern slope of Mount Etna in Sicily reached the Mediterranean Sea and triggered a megatsunami in the Eastern Mediterranean with an initial wave height of 40 metres (131ft) along the eastern coast of Sicily, where it felled millions of trees. Models indicate it had heights of 30 metres (98ft) near Syracuse, Sicily; 15 to 34 metres (49 to 112ft) along the southern coast of Italy; 20 metres (66ft) along the southeastern coast of Sicily; 15 metres (49ft) at the northeastern tip of Sicily; 18 metres (59ft) at Malta; 12 metres (39ft) on the western coast of Greece; 6 metres (20ft) in southern Greece; 5 to 10 metres (16 to 33ft) along the coast of Libya; 1 metre (3ft 3in) on the south coast of Crete; 0.5 metres (1ft 8in) at Cyprus; and 2.5 metres (8ft 2in) at the Neolithic village of Atlit Yam off the coast of Israel, prompting the village's permanent abandonment.[25][26][27][28][29]
The Storegga Slides, 100 kilometres (62mi) northwest of the coast of Møre in the Norwegian Sea, triggered a large tsunami in the North Atlantic Ocean. The collapse involved around 290 kilometres (180mi) of coastal shelf, and a total volume of 3,500km3 (840cumi) of debris.[30] Based on carbon dating of plant material in the sediment deposited by the tsunami, the latest incident occurred around 6225–6170 BC.[31][32] In Scotland, traces of the tsunami have been found in sediments from Montrose Basin, the Firth of Forth, up to 80 kilometres (50mi) inland and 4 metres (13ft) above current normal tide levels.
A large landslide into Sullorsuaq Strait (known in Danish as Vaigat Strait) generated a megatsunami which had a run-up height of 41 to 66 metres (135 to 217ft).[33]
A large landslide into Sullorsuaq Strait (known in Danish as Vaigat Strait) generated a megatsunami which had a run-up height of 45 to 70 metres (148 to 230ft).[33]
A magnitude 9.5 earthquake generated tsunamis 15 to 20 metres (49 to 66ft) in height that struck 1,000 kilometres (620mi) of the coastline of the Atacama Desert. People fled the area and did not begin to return until ca. 800 BCE; some pre-tsunami settlements were not reoccupied until between ca. 1000 and 1500 CE.[35][36]
An earthquake generated the 7,200,000-cubic-metre (9,400,000cuyd) Sledgehammer Point Rockslide, which fell from Mount Storm King and entered waters at least 140 metres (459ft) deep, generating a megatsunami with an estimated maximum run-up height of 82 to 104 metres (269 to 341ft).[38]
The oldest recorded tsunami in history.[2] During the Persian siege of the maritime city of Potidaea, Greece, Herodotus reports how Persian attackers attempting to take advantage of an unusual retreat of the water were suddenly surprised by "a great tide, higher, as the locals say, than any one of many that had been before". Herodotus attributes the cause of the flash flood to Poseidon's wrath.[39]
In the summer of 426 BC, a tsunami struck the gulf between the northwestern tip of Euboea and Lamia.[40] The Greek historian Thucydides (3.89.1–6) described how the tsunami and a series of earthquakes affected the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) and, for the first time, associated earthquakes with waves in terms of cause and effect.[41]
373 BCE
Helike, Greece
Earthquake
An earthquake and a tsunami destroyed the prosperous Greek city of Helike, 2km (1.2mi) from the sea. The fate of the city, which remained permanently submerged, was often commented on by ancient writers[42] and may have inspired contemporary Plato to create the myth of Atlantis.
60 BCE
Portugal and Galicia
Earthquake
An earthquake of intensity IX and an estimated magnitude of 6.7 caused a tsunami on the coasts of Portugal and Galicia.[43] Little else is known due to the paucity of records of Roman possession of the Iberian Peninsula.
Underwater geoarchaeological excavations on the shallow shelf – around 10 metres (33ft) depth – at Caesarea, Israel, documented a tsunami hitting the ancient port. Talmudic sources record a tsunami on 13 December 115 AD that affected Caesarea and Yavneh. The tsunami was likely triggered by an earthquake that destroyed Antioch, and was generated somewhere along the Cyprian Arch fault system.[45]
Many cities were inundated by the sea, with cities in Roman Asia reporting the worst tsunami damage. In many places fissures appeared in the earth and filled with water; in others, towns were inundated by the sea.[46][47][48]
On the morning of 21 July 365 AD, an earthquake triggered a tsunami more than 100 feet (30m) high, devastating Alexandria and the eastern and southern shores of the Mediterranean, killing thousands, and throwing ships nearly two miles inland.[49][50] This tsunami also devastated many large cities in what is now Libya and Tunisia. The anniversary of the disaster was still commemorated annually in the late sixth century in Alexandria as a "day of horror."[51]
Researchers at the University of Cambridge recently carbon dated corals off the coast of Crete that were raised 10 metres (33ft) and out of the water during the earthquake, indicating that the tsunami was generated by an earthquake on a pronounced fault in the Hellenic Trench. Scientists estimate that such an uplift is likely to only occur once every 5,000 years; however, the other segments of the fault could slip on a similar scale every 800 years or so.[52]
The earthquake of 9 July 551 AD was one of the largest seismic events in and around Lebanon during the Byzantine period. The earthquake was associated with a tsunami along the Lebanese coast and a local landslide near Al-Batron. A large fire in Beirut also continued for almost two months.[53]
Probably generated by a landslide that triggered a collapse of sediments at the mouth of the River Rhône, the tsunami traveled the length of Lake Geneva, reaching a height of 16 metres (52ft) in some places. The wave probably killed hundreds, or even thousands, of people.[54][55][56][57][58]
The first recorded tsunami in Japan struck on 29 November 684 AD off the coast of the Kii, Shikoku, and Awaji region. The earthquake, estimated at a magnitude of 8.4,[43] was followed by a large tsunami, but there are no estimates of the number of deaths.[59] From then on, the Japanese would keep meticulous records of tsunamis.[60][citation needed]
The Sanriku region was hit by a large tsunami on 13 July 869 AD, causing floods to spread 4km (2.5mi) inland from the coast. Tagajō was destroyed, with an estimated 1,000 casualties.
On 26 August 887 AD, there was a strong commotion in the Kyoto region, causing great destruction. A tsunami inundated the coastal region and some people died. The coast of Settsu Province (Osaka Prefecture) suffered especially, and the tsunami was also observed on the coast of the Sea of Hyūga (Miyazaki Prefecture).[43]
On 5 December 1033, a large earthquake struck along the Dead Sea Transform, causing extreme devastation. At least 70,000 killed. Several killed by a moderate tsunami.[47][48]
A team from Southern Cross University in Lismore, New South Wales, Australia, has found evidence of five tsunamis hitting Greece in the last 2000 years. "Most were small and local, but on August 8, 1303 a larger one hit Crete, Rhodes, Alexandria and Acre in Israel."[64]
A 2019 study attributes the event to a massive submarine landslide caused by the collapse of the flank of the Stromboli volcano on 25 November 1343.[65]
On 31 August 1420, a huge earthquake shook what is now the Atacama Region of Chile. Landslides occurred along the coast and tsunamis affected not only Chile but also Hawaii and Japan.[66][67]
On 23 November 1454, during the Kyōtoku era, an earthquake, possibly 8.4 or higher, shook the Kantō and Tōhoku regions at midnight, generating a tsunami that inundated 1–2.5km (0.6–1.6mi) of land, sweeping people away in Mutsu Province.[68][69]
On 20 September 1498, during the Meiō era, a 7.5 earthquake occurred. The ports of Kii Province (Wakayama Prefecture) were damaged by a tsunami of several meters in height. Between 30,000 and 40,000 deaths were estimated.[43][70] The building around the great Buddha of Kamakura (altitude 7m (23ft)) was swept away by the tsunami.[71]
The earthquake of 26 January 1531 was accompanied by a tsunami in the Tagus River that destroyed ships in the port of Lisbon.
1541
Nueva Cadiz, Venezuela
Earthquake
In 1528, Cristóbal Guerra founded Nueva Cádiz on the island of Cubagua, the first Spanish settlement in Venezuela. Nueva Cádiz, with a population of 1,000 to 1,500, may have been destroyed by an earthquake followed by tsunami on 25 December 1541; it could also have been a major hurricane.[72] The ruins were declared a National Monument of Venezuela in 1979.
On 11 June 1585, a moderate tsunami struck the Japanese coast of Sanriku. At the same time, several native Hawaiians died after their settlements were hit by a tsunami-like event described in oral traditions. Evidence of a paleotsunami was also found in the Hawaiian Islands corresponding to a large tsunami in the 16th century. Modelling of a magnitude 9.25 earthquake in the Aleutian Islands matched descriptions and geological evidence in Japan and Hawaii.[73]
A magnitude 7.9 earthquake struck central Honshu on 18 January 1586.[43] The earthquake triggered tsunami waves in Lake Biwa, Wakasa Bay and Ise Bay, destroying villages and drowning residents. Waves of up to 5 metres (16ft) were estimated.[74] The events killed 8,000 people.
An 8.1Ms earthquake in the Pacific Ocean off the Sanriku Coast on 2 December 1611[75][76] generated a tsunami that reached its maximum estimated height of about 20 metres (66ft) at Ōfunato, Japan.[77] About 5,000 people were killed.[78]
On 17 February 1674, an earthquake triggered a landslide that generated waves of up to 100 metres (328ft) along the coast of Ambon Island, killing more than 2,000.
On 4 November 1677, a low-intensity earthquake was felt in the area around the Bōsō Peninsula, but was followed by a large tsunami, which killed an estimated 569 people.[79]
A major earthquake on 9 January 1693 was followed on 11 January 1693 by the most powerful earthquake in Italian history. The ensuing tsunami devastated the Ionian Sea coast and the Strait of Messina. The wave struck about 230 kilometres (140mi) of the coast of Sicily, reaching a height of between 2.4 and 26 metres (8 and 85ft) at Augusta and penetrating 1.5 kilometres (0.9mi) inland at Mascali.[80] It is unclear whether the tsunami was caused directly by the earthquake or by a large underwater landslide triggered by the event.
On 26 January 1700, the Cascadia earthquake, with an estimated magnitude of 9.0, ruptured the Cascadia subduction zone (CSZ) from Vancouver Island to California, and triggered a massive tsunami recorded in Japan and by the oral traditions of indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest. The wave caught the Japanese off guard, not knowing its origin, and was explained in the book, The Orphan Tsunami.[81]
On 28 October 1707, during the Hōei era, an 8.4 magnitude earthquake and tsunami up to 10 metres (33ft) high[82] hit Tosa Province (Kōchi Prefecture). More than 29,000 houses were destroyed, causing around 30,000 deaths. In Tosa, 11,170 houses were razed to the ground, and 18,441 people drowned. Some 700 drowned and 603 houses were razed to the ground in Osaka. The hot springs of Yunomine, Kii (Tanabe, Wakayama), Sanji, Ryujin, Kii (Tanabe, Wakayama) Kanayana (Shirahama, Wakayama) and Dōgo, Iyo (Matsuyama, Ehime) stopped flowing.[43]
On 17 October 1737, a 9.0-9.3 MW earthquake in the Pacific Ocean off the southeastern coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula generated a tsunami. The tsunami reached a height of 30 metres (98ft) in Avacha Bay, and elsewhere on the peninsula's coast waves of 6.3 metres (21ft) and 63 metres (207ft) were reported and evidence of a run-up height of 70 metres (230ft) was found on one ridge. In the northern Kuril Islands, the wave was 20 metres (66ft) tall, while on Amchitka in the Aleutian Islands it reached 12 to 16 metres (39 to 52ft).[84][85][86]
On 29 August 1741, the western side of the Oshima Peninsula, Ezo (Hokkaido) was hit by a tsunami caused by an eruption of the volcano on the island of Ōshima. The tsunami itself is believed to have been the result from a landslide of a partly underwater landslide triggered by the eruption.[87] 1,467 people died in Ezo.[48]
On 20 February 1743, a magnitude 7.1 earthquake in the Strait of Otranto triggered a tsunami up to 11 metres (36ft) high.[88] Between 180 and 300 people died.[89]
Tens of thousands of Portuguese people who survived the Great Lisbon earthquake on 1 November 1755 were killed by a tsunami 40 minutes later. Many fled to the coast, an area safe from fires and debris during aftershocks. These people watched the sea recede, revealing a seabed littered with lost cargo and shipwrecks. The tsunami then struck with a maximum height of 15 metres (49ft), traveling inland.
The earthquake, tsunami, and fires killed 40,000 to 50,000 people.[90] Historical records of early navigators such as Vasco da Gama were lost, and among the destroyed buildings were most of Portugal's examples of Manueline architecture. Eighteenth-century Europeans struggled to understand the disaster within religious and rational belief systems, and Enlightenment philosophers, notably Voltaire, wrote about the event. The philosophical concept of the sublime, as described by Immanuel Kant was inspired by attempts to understand the enormity of the Lisbon earthquake and tsunami.
The tsunami took just over 4 hours to travel over 1,000 miles (1,600km) to Cornwall in the United Kingdom. An account by Arnold Boscowitz claimed "great loss of life." It also struck Galway, Ireland, and caused heavy damage to the Spanish Arch section of the city wall.
On 22 February 1756, a landslide in Langfjorden generated three megatsunamis in Langfjorden and Eresfjorden with heights of 40 to 50 metres (131 to 164ft). The waves killed 32 people and destroyed 168 buildings, 196 boats, large amounts of forest, roads and boat landings.[91]
More than five years after the 1755 earthquake, on 31 March 1761, another event with an estimated magnitude of 8.5 shook the Iberian Peninsula. It generated a tsunami up to 2.4 metres (7ft 10in) at Lisbon. In Cornwall, the tsunami reached more than 1 metre (3ft 3in) in height. The details of this earthquake are largely unknown, censored by the Portuguese government to prevent panic.
On 2 April 1762, the west coast of Myanmar (Burma) and Chittagong was hit by an earthquake with an estimated magnitude of 8.8, triggering a tsunami in the Bay of Bengal and killing more than 200 people.[92]
An underwater earthquake with an estimated magnitude of 7.4 occurred near the Yaeyama Islands in the former Ryūkyū Kingdom (present day Okinawa, Japan) on 24 April 1771 at about 08:00. The earthquake is not believed to have directly caused any deaths, but the resulting tsunami killed an estimated 12,000 people.[93] Advance estimates at Ishigaki Island range from 30 to 85.4 metres (98 to 280ft). The tsunami was followed by malaria epidemics and crop failures. It took 148 years for the population to return to pre-tsunami levels.
1781
Pingtung, Taiwan
In April or May 1781, according to Taiwan County records, in Jiadong, Pingtung, a three-metre (9.8ft) wave hit the city. Fish and shrimp rampaged wildly on the shore and nearby fishing villages were wiped out. However, no earthquake was reported.[94] A different source claims that a 30-metre (98ft) wave also hit Tainan.[95] One possibility is a misrecording of the date, corresponding to the Great Yaeyama event mentioned above.
The earthquake was the second of a sequence of five shocks that shook Calabria between 5 February and 28 March 1783. The citizens of Scilla spent the night after the first earthquake on the beach, where they were washed away by the tsunami, causing 1,500 deaths. The tsunami was caused by the collapse of Monte Paci into the sea, near the city. Estimated deaths from earthquake and tsunami are 32,000 to 50,000.
Tsunamis were the main cause of death in the worst volcanic disaster in Japanese history, an eruption of Mount Unzen, Hizen Province (Nagasaki Prefecture), Kyushu, Japan. Towards the end of 1791, a series of earthquakes on the western flank of Mount Unzen moved towards Fugen-dake, one of the peaks of Mount Unzen. In February 1792, Fugen-dake erupted, starting two months of lava flows. The earthquakes continued, approaching the city of Shimabara. On the night of 21 May 1792, two major earthquakes preceded the collapse of the eastern flank of Mount Unzen's Mayuyama dome. An avalanche swept across Shimabara and Ariake Bay, causing a tsunami. The tsunami hit Higo Province (Kumamoto Prefecture) along Ariake Bay before recovering. Of the estimated 15,000 deaths, around 5,000 are believed to have died from the landslide, around 5,000 from the tsunami in Higo Province, and around 5,000 from the tsunami that returned to Shimabara. The waves reached a height of 330ft (100m), making it a small megatsunami.
1793
Sanriku, Japan
Earthquake
On 7 January 1793, a major earthquake struck around 12:00 at the southern coast of Sanriku. It swept away 72 houses and killed 11 people in Otsuchi.[68]
On 10 February 1797, a massive earthquake estimated to be approximately 8.4 on the moment magnitude scale struck Sumatra in Indonesia. Many deaths occurred, although it is not known how many.
On 2 September 1806, a landslide of 120,000,000 tons of rock, much of which displaced water from Lake Lauerz and caused a tsunami that inundated lakeside villages, killing 457 people.
On 21 December 1812, a magnitude 7.1 to 7.5 earthquake triggered a 3.4-metre (11ft) tsunami (eyewitness reported more than 15 metres [49ft]) in the Lompoc area, leveling homes and missions in the area. It left a ship inland before taking it back out to sea. Its origin may be due to faults or landslides.
On 10 April 1815, an eruption of VEI 7 caused a localized tsunami. Tsunami of 4 metres (13ft) in Sanggar, 1 to 2m (3ft 3in to 6ft 7in) in Besuki, Java Island and 2m (6ft 7in) in the Molucca Islands.
On 25 November 1833, an earthquake with an estimated moment magnitude between 8.8 and 9.2 struck Sumatra in the Dutch East-Indies. The coast of Sumatra, near the epicenter of the earthquake, was the most affected by the resulting tsunami.
On 7 November 1833, an earthquake hit south-central Chile, also striking Hawaii, French Polynesia, and Japan. In Japan, it was considered strange as they had felt no earthquake prior to the tsunami.
On 17 May 1841, an earthquake with an estimated moment magnitude of at least 9.0 in the Pacific Ocean off the Kamchatka Peninsula generated a tsunami with a maximum run-up height of 15 metres (49ft) along the peninsula's eastern coast.[96][97] The tsunami reached Hilo, Hawaii, where it measured 4.6 metres (15ft).[98]
On 8 February 1843, an 8.5 earthquake generated a 1.2-metre (3ft 11in) high tsunami which hit Antigua.
1843
Honshu, Japan
Earthquake
On 26 March 1843, an 8.0 earthquake hit around 6:00, causing waves 4 to 7 metres (13 to 23ft) high.[99] It damaged houses in Akamae, Miyako, as well as damaging 14 or 15 huts in Shirogane, Hachinohe.[68]
Sometime between August 1853 and May 1854, a large tsunami traveled through the bay. The wave had a maximum height of 120 metres (394ft) and inundated the bay shoreline up to 750 feet (229m) inland.[100]
The Ansei earthquakes which hit the south coast of Japan, were actually a series of three earthquakes over the course of several days.
An 8.4 magnitude earthquake on 23 December 1854, near Mikawa Province (Aichi Prefecture) and Tōtōmi Province (Shizuoka Prefecture) produced tsunami heights of 4 to 6 metres (13 to 20ft), with localized heights of up to 16.5 metres (54ft), which is believed to be due to the shape of the port.[101]
Another magnitude 8.4 earthquake on 24 December 1854 in Kii Province (Wakayama Prefecture). The resulting tsunami reached a height of 8.4 metres (28ft),[102] and swept away 15,000 homes away.[citation needed] The number of homes directly destroyed by the earthquake was 2,598; 1,443 people died.[43]
The following year, on 11 November 1855, the Great Ansei Edo earthquake of 1855 struck the Edo (Tokyo) region of Japan, killing between 4,500 and 10,000 people. Popular stories of the time blamed the earthquakes and tsunamis on a wallowing giant catfish named Namazu thrashing about. The name of the Japanese era was changed to bring good luck after four disastrous earthquakes and tsunamis in two years.
1856
Sanriku, Japan
Earthquake
On 23 July 1856, at around 12:00, an earthquake generated a tsunami affecting communities similar to the 1896 Sanriku earthquake.[104] 108 houses were damaged in the vicinity of what is now Miyako City.[68]
On 18 November 1867, a large doublet earthquake occurred in the Virgin Islands archipelago. The crash likely occurred between the islands of Saint Thomas and Saint Croix. The highest run of 7.6m (25ft) was observed at Frederiksted on Saint Croix, and occurred within minutes of the tremors.[105]
On 18 December 1867, a major earthquake struck Keelung, Taiwan, causing the crust of the mountains to deform and fissures to open. The water drained out of Keelung Harbor to reveal the sea floor, then returned in a large wave. The boats were dragged to the center of the city. In many places, the ground and the mountains split open and water gushed out of fissures. Hundreds of deaths resulted.[94][95]
On 2 April 1868, a local earthquake estimated to be between 7.5 and 8.0 magnitude struck off the southeastern coast of the Big Island of Hawaii. It triggered a landslide on the slopes of the Mauna Loa volcano, five miles (8.0km) north of Pahala, killing 31 people. Then a tsunami claimed an additional 46 lives. The villages of Punaluu, Ninole, Kawaa, Honuapo, and Keauhou Landing were heavily damaged, and the village of Apua was destroyed. According to one account, the tsunami "passed over the tops of coconut palms, probably 60 feet (18m) high .... inland for a distance of a quarter of a mile in places, carrying into the sea as it returned, houses, men, women, and almost all furniture." This was reported in the 1988 edition of the book Tsunami! ( ISBN0-8248-1125-9) by Walter C. Dudley.
On 13 August 1868, an earthquake with an estimated magnitude of 8.5 struck the Peru–Chile Trench. A resulting tsunami hit the port of Arica, then part of Peru, killing an estimated 25,000 in Arica and 70,000 in total. Three military ships anchored in Arica, the American warship USSWateree and the freighter Fredonia, and the Peruvian warship America, were swept away by the tsunami.[106]
In March 1871, an explosive eruption from the Ruang volcano triggered a locally devastating tsunami measuring 25m (82ft). It flooded many villages on nearby islands, killing about 400 people.
Sometime around 1874, perhaps in May 1874, a megatsunami occurred in Lituya Bay. It had a maximum rise height of 80 feet (24m), flooding the bay shoreline as far as 2,100 feet (640m) inland.[107]
On 9 May 1877, an earthquake with an estimated magnitude of 8.5 occurred off the coast of what is now Chile, causing a tsunami that killed an estimated 2,541 people. This event followed the destructive earthquake and tsunami at Arica by only nine years.[108]
On 31 December 1881 a tsunami caused by an earthquake was recorded on all the coasts of the Bay of Bengal by tide gauges. This information has been used to estimate the rupture area and magnitude of the earthquake.
The volcano on the island of Krakatoa in the Dutch East-Indies (present-day Indonesia) exploded on 27 August 1883, partially emptying its subterranean magma chamber, causing much of the land and seabed to collapse onto it. The collapse generated a series of large tsunami waves, some more than 40 metres (130ft) above sea level. Tsunami waves were observed throughout the Indian Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, and as far away as the west coast of the United States and South America. On the opposing coasts of Java and Sumatra flooding from the sea reached many miles inland and caused such loss of life[109] that one area was never resettled, reverting to jungle and is now the Ujung KulonNature Reserve.
On 13 March 1888, a significant portion of Ritter Island collapsed into the sea, generating tsunamis up to 12 to 15 metres (39 to 49ft) high that struck nearby islands and traveled as far south as New Guinea, where they were 8 metres (26ft) high. The waves killed about 3,000 people.[110][111] [112][113][114]
On 15 June 1896, at around 19:32 local time, a large undersea earthquake off the coast of Sanriku, northeastern Honshu, Japan, triggered tsunami waves that hit the shore approximately half an hour later. Although the earthquake itself is not believed to have caused any deaths, the waves, which reached a height of 100 feet (30m), killed an estimated 27,000 people. In 2005, the same general area was hit by the 2005 Sanriku Japan earthquake, but without a major tsunami.
On 15 January 1905, a rockslide hit lake Loenvatnet in Sogn og Fjordane, creating a 40m (130ft) flood wave that destroyed the villages of Ytre Nesdal and Bødal, killing 61 people.[115] The slide, which started 500 metres (1,640ft) up the side of Mount Ramnefjell, had a mass of about 870,000 metric tons (860,000 long tons; 960,000 short tons) when it entered the lake.[116]
1905
Disenchantment Bay, Alaska
Glacier collapse
On 4 July 1905, a tsunami at Disenchantment Bay in Alaska snapped tree branches 110 feet (34m) above ground level 0.5 miles (0.8km) away from its source, killed vegetation to a height of 65 feet (20m) as far as 3 miles (5km) away, and reached heights of 50 to 115 feet (15 to 35m) at various locations on the Haenke Island shoreline. At a distance of 15 miles (24km), observers at Russell Fjord reported a series of large waves that caused the water level to rise and fall 15 to 20 feet (5 to 6m) for a half an hour.[117]
On 31 January 1906 an earthquake caused a tsunami that killed 500 people in Tumaco and Esmeraldas and hit Colombia, Ecuador, California, Hawaii, and Japan. The waves were 5 metres (16ft) high.
The aftermath of the tsunami that struck Messina in 1908 On 28 December 1908 an earthquake combined with a tsunami claimed an estimated ~80,000 lives.[119]
After the cargo shipSSMont-Blanc caught fire on 6 December 1917, her cargo of high explosives detonated in a massive explosion that displaced water around the ship and briefly exposed the bottom of Halifax Harbour. Water rushing in to fill the void generated a tsunami which reached a height of 18 metres (59ft) along the harbour's western shore at Halifax.[120][121]
On 11 October 1918 an underwater earthquake in the Mona Passage which may have been associated with an underwater landslide generated a tsunami with a run-up height of 6 metres (20ft) along the northern and western coasts of Puerto Rico, killing 116 people and leaving 100 missing.[122][123]
Generated by either a 6.1-magnitude earthquake in the Hon Tro Islands or a volcanic eruption, the tsunami flooded the coast, reportedly damaging a stable5 to 6 metres (16 to 20ft) from the shoreline.[124]
An 8.3-magnitude earthquake in the Pacific Ocean east of the Kamchatka Peninsula on 3 February 1923 generated a tsunami which reached a height of 8 metres (26ft) along the peninsula's coast. The wave caused property damage there and in Hawaii, and also was observed in Japan and California.[123]
The Great Kantō earthquake, which occurred in eastern Japan on 1 September 1923, and devastated Tokyo, Yokohama, and surrounding areas, triggered tsunamis that struck the Shōnan coast, the Bōsō Peninsula, the Izu Islands and the east coast of the Izu Peninsula, in a matter of minutes in some cases. In Atami, waves that reached 12 metres (39ft) were recorded. Examples of tsunami damage include about 100 people killed along Kamakura's Yuigahama beach and about 50 people on the Enoshima causeway. However, tsunamis only accounted for a small proportion of the final death toll of more than 100,000, most of whom died in fires.
On 17 January 1929 a 6.9 earthquake hit the city of Cumaná in Venezuela causing major damage and a 3-metre (10ft) tsunami that swept away homes and killed 40 people.
On 18 November 1929, a magnitude 7.2 earthquake occurred below the Laurentian Slope on the Grand Banks. The earthquake was felt throughout Canada's Atlantic provinces and as far away as Ottawa and Claymont, Delaware. The resulting tsunami measured more than 7 metres (23ft) high and took about 2+1⁄2 hours to reach the Burin Peninsula on the south coast of Newfoundland, where 28 people in various communities were killed. It also broke telegraphcables laid under the Atlantic Ocean.[125]
On 5 May 1930, a 7.5 magnitude earthquake along the Sagaing Fault triggered a 1.06 metres (3ft 6in) high tsunami that inundated the southern coast of Myanmar.[126] It traveled up rivers, destroying harbors and anchored ships. The earthquake killed more than 500 people in Bago, Rangoon, and many other cities.
Three very large to large earthquakes off the coast of Jalisco in June 1932 each generated tsunamis. The last and smallest event in the series occurred upslope relative to the mainshock and generated the largest tsunami.[127]
On 3 March 1933, the coast of Sanriku in northeastern Honshu, Japan, which suffered a devastating tsunami in 1896 (see above), was struck again by tsunami waves resulting from a magnitude 8.1 offshore earthquake. The earthquake destroyed around 5,000 homes and killed 3,068 people, the vast majority as a result of the tsunami waves. The coastal town of Tarō (now part of Miyako city) in Iwate Prefecture was particularly hard hit, losing 42% of its total population and 98% of its buildings. Tarō is now protected by a tsunami wall, currently 10 metres (33ft) high and over 2 kilometres (1.25 miles) long.[128]
On 7 April 1934, a rockslide of about 2,000,000 cubic metres (2,600,000cuyd) of rock fell from Langhamaren Mountain from a height of about 700 metres (2,300ft). The rock landed in Tafjorden creating a local tsunami that killed 40 people[129] living on the fjord's shore. Waves reached a height of 62 metres (203ft) near the landslide, about 7 metres (23ft) at Sylte, and about 16 metres (52ft) at Tafjord. It was one of the worst natural disasters in Norway in the 20th century.[130]
On 13 September 1936, approximately 1,000,000m3 (1,300,000cuyd) of mountain broke off the Mount Ramnefjell at a height of 800 metres (2,620ft)[116] and fell into lake Loenvatnet in Sogn og Fjordane, creating a 70m (230ft) flood wave that destroyed several farms, killing 74 people. The second such incident in 31 years, the disaster caused the permanent depopulation of the area.[131]
On 27 October 1936, a megatsunami occurred in Alaska's Lituya Bay with a maximum breakthrough height of 490 feet (149m) in Crillon Inlet at the head of the bay. All four eyewitnesses to the wave in Lituya Bay survived and described it as being between 100 and 250 feet (30 and 76m) high as it traveled across the bay. The maximum flood distance was 2,000 feet (610m) inland along the north shore of the bay. The cause of the megatsunami remains unclear, but it may have been an underwater landslide.[132]
A 4,000,000-to-5,000,000-cubic-yard (3,100,000 to 3,800,000m3) landslide along the shore of what later was renamed Franklin D. Roosevelt Lake about 98 miles (158km) above Grand Coulee Dam in April 1944 generated a tsunami which reached a maximum height of 30 feet (9.1m) along the opposite shore 5,000 feet (1,524m) away.[133]
An 8.0 magnitude earthquake on 7 December 1944, about 20 kilometres (12.4mi) off Japan's Shima Peninsula, striking the Pacific coast of central Japan, primarily Mie, Aichi, and Shizuoka Prefectures. Authorities downplayed news of the event to protect wartime morale during World War II, and as a result the full extent of the damage is unknown, but the earthquake is estimated to have killed 1,223 people, with the tsunami being the main cause of deaths.
The earthquake with a moment magnitude of 8.1 and a maximum perceived intensity of X (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale, occurred in British India at 01:26 on 28 November 1945. It was the result of a fault near the Makran Trench. The resulting tsunami caused damage along the Makran coastal region affecting Pakistan, Iran, Oman and India.[134][135]
Residents running from an approaching tsunami in Hilo, Hawaii
On 1 April 1946, the Aleutian Islands tsunami killed 159 people in Hawaii and five in Alaska (the lighthouse keepers of the Scotch Cap Light in the Aleutian Islands). The wave reached Kauai, Hawaii, 4+1⁄2 hours after the quake, and Hilo, Hawaii, almost 5 hours later. Residents of these islands were completely caught off guard by the onset of the tsunami due to the inability to broadcast any warnings from the destroyed poles at the Scotch Cap Light on Unimak Island in Alaska. The tsunami is known as the Hawaii April Fools' Day Tsunami because it happened on 1 April and many people thought it was an April Fool's Day prank. The result was the creation of a tsunami warning system known as the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC), established in 1949 for the countries of Oceania.
The Nankai earthquake of 21 December 1946 had a magnitude of 8.4 and occurred at 04:19 (local time) to the southwestern Japan in the Nankai Trough. This event was one of the Nankai megathrust earthquakes, periodic earthquakes observed off the southern coast of the Kii Peninsula and Shikoku, Japan, every 100 to 150 years. The subsequent tsunami leveled 1451 houses and caused 1500 deaths in Japan, and was observed on tide gauges in California, Hawaii, and Peru.[43] The coastal cities of Kushimoto and Kainan on the Kii Peninsula were particularly hard hit. The earthquake caused more than 1400 deaths, with the tsunami being the main cause.
On 26 March 1947 a Mw7.0-7.1 earthquake struck west of Gisborne, New Zealand, which caused a maximum run-up height of 10 metres (33ft).[136] Almost two months later, a Mw6.9-7.1 earthquake occurred, which caused a maximum run-up height of 6 metres (20ft).[137]
A 2,000,000-to-3,000,000-cubic-yard (1,500,000 to 2,300,000m3) landslide near the mouth of Hawk Creek, about 35 miles (56km) north of Grand Coulee Dam, entered the lake on 27July 1949 and generated a 65-foot (20m) tsunami that struck the town of Lincoln. The wave was noted by observers as far as 20 miles (32km) away.[138][139]
On 4 March 1952 a magnitude 8.1 earthquake off the southeast coast of Hokkaido generated a tsunami that reached it greatest height of 6.5 metres (21ft) in Akkeshi Bay. A 2-metre (6ft 7in) wave struck Hachinohe. The earthquake and tsunami combined killed 28 people, injured 287, and left five missing. Property damage included 815 houses completely destroyed, 1,324 half-damaged, and 6,395 partially damaged, with 20 lost to fire and 1,621 rendered uninhabitable. The tsunami swept away 91 houses, flooded 328 others, and damaged 451 ships and boats.[140][141] In Hamanaka. where it destroyed numerous homes, the tsunami apparently pushed drift ice ashore, exacerbating the damage.[142]
A 15,000,000-cubic-yard (11,000,000m3) landslide 3 miles (4.8km) below the Kettle Falls Bridge in April 1952 generated a tsunami which reached a maximum height of 65 feet (20m) along the opposite shore of the lake. The wave was observed on the lake as far as 6 miles (9.7km) away.
On 5 November 1952, a magnitude 9.0 earthquake off the coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula triggered a tsunami. Three waves with heights of 12 to 18 metres (39 to 59ft) killed 2,336 people at Severo-Kurilsk on the Kuril Islands in the Soviet Union. The tsunami also caused property damage in Hawaii.[143]
1952
Sullorsuaq Strait, Greenland
Landslide
On 15 December 1952, a landslide that began at an elevation of 500 to 700 metres (1,640 to 2,297ft) on a slope of the mountain Niiortuut on the southern coast of western Greenland′s Nuussuaq Peninsula deposited between 1,800,000 and 4,500,000 cubic metres (2,400,000 and 5,900,000cuyd) of material in Sullorsuaq Strait (known in Danish as Vaigat Strait), generating a tsunami. With a run-up height of 4.5 to 7.7 metres (15 to 25ft), it struck a group of four fishermen 10 kilometres (6.2mi) away on the southern coast of the Nuussuaq Peninsula, killing one. Then it struck the town of Qullissat30 kilometres (19mi) away across the strait on Disko Island, where it had a run-up height of 2.2 to 2.7 metres (7ft 3in to 8ft 10in).[144]
A series of landslides about 100 miles (161km) upstream from Grand Coulee Dam in February 1953 generated a series of tsunamis with a maximum run-up height of 16 feet (4.9m) along the opposite shore of the lake. Waves crossed the 5,000-foot (1,520m) wide lake in an average of 90 seconds,[133] indicating an average speed of almost 38 miles per hour (61km/h).
A series of landslides at Reed Terrace between April and August 1953 generated tsunamis at least 11 times. The largest of them reached a maximum height of 65 feet (20m) along the opposite shore of the lake and was observed as far as 6 miles (9.7km) away. One of the waves reached a speed of 45 miles per hour (72km/h).[133]
On 9 July 1956, 53 deaths occurred during the largest earthquake of the 20th century in Greece. Santorini was damaged, and a localized tsunami affected the Cyclades and Dodecanese island groups. A maximum run-up of 30m (98ft) was observed off the south coast of Amorgos.[145]
On the night of 9 July 1958, an earthquake on the Fairweather Fault in Alaska loosened about 40 million cubic yards (30 million cubic meters) of rock 3,000 feet (910m) above the northeast shore of Lituya Bay. The impact in the waters of Gilbert Inlet generated a local tsunami that crashed against the southwest coast and swept the spur separating Gilbert Inlet from the main Lituya Bay. The wave continued through Lituya Bay, over La Chaussee Spit and into the Gulf of Alaska. The force of the wave removed all trees and vegetation from a height of 1,720 feet (520m) above sea level. This is the highest wave ever recorded. The scale of this wave was much larger than ordinary tsunamis, eventually leading to the new category of megatsunamis.
The magnitude 9.5 earthquake of 22 May 1960, the largest earthquake ever recorded, generated one of the most destructive tsunamis of the 20th century. The tsunami spread across the Pacific Ocean, with waves measuring up to 25 metres (82ft) high in places. The first tsunami wave hit Hilo, Hawaii, approximately 15 hours after its origin. The highest wave at Hilo Bay was measured at around 10.7m (35ft). 61 people died, allegedly due to people not heeding the warning sirens. Nearly 22 hours after the earthquake, waves up to 3 metres (10ft) above high tide hit the coast of Sanriku in Japan, killing 142 people. Up to 6,000 people died in total worldwide from the earthquake and tsunami.[159]
The Vajont Dam as seen from Longarone on 25 September 2012, showing the top 60 to 70 metres (197 to 230ft). The 200–250-metre (656–820-foot) megatsunami would have obscured virtually all of the sky in this picture.
The Vajont Dam was completed in 1961 under Monte Toc, 100km (62mi) north of Venice, Italy. At 262 metres (860ft), it was one of the tallest dams in the world. On 9 October 1963 a landslide of some 260,000,000 cubic metres (340,000,000cuyd) of forest, dirt, and rock fell into the reservoir at speeds of up to 110km/h (68mph). The resulting water displacement caused 50,000,000 cubic metres (65,000,000cuyd) of water to overflow the dam in a megatsunami wave 250 metres (820ft) high. The resulting flood destroyed the villages of Longarone, Pirago, Rivalta, Villanova, and Faè, killing 1,450 people. Almost 2,000 people perished in total.
A magnitude 8.5 earthquake in the Pacific Ocean off Urup on 13October 1963 generated a tsunami in the Pacific Ocean and Sea of Okhotsk with run-up heights of as much as 4 to 5 metres (13.1 to 16.4ft)[143]
On 16 June 1964, 28 people died, and entire apartment buildings were destroyed by soil liquefaction. The subsequent tsunami destroyed the port of Niigata.
An 8.1 magnitude earthquake occurred on 12 December 1979 at 02:59 along the Pacific coast of Colombia and Ecuador. The earthquake and resulting tsunami destroyed at least six fishing villages and killed hundreds of people in the Colombian Department of Nariño. The earthquake was felt in Bogotá, Cali, Popayán, Buenaventura, Guayaquil, Esmeraldas, and Quito. The tsunami caused great destruction in the city of Tumaco, as well as in the towns of El Charco, San Juan, Mosquera, and Salahonda on the Pacific coast of Colombia. Casualties included 259 dead, 798 wounded and 95 missing or presumed dead.
On 18 May 1980, in the course of a major eruption of Mount St. Helens, the upper 460 metres (1,510ft) of the mountain failed, causing a major landslide. One lobe of the landslide rose into nearby Spirit Lake, creating a megatsunami260 metres (850ft) high.[162]
On 26 May 1983 at 11:59 local time, a magnitude 7.7 earthquake occurred in the Sea of Japan, about 100km (62mi) west of the Noshiro coast in Akita Prefecture. Of the 107 fatalities, all but four were killed by the resulting tsunami, which hit communities along the coast, especially Aomori and Akita Prefectures and the Noto Peninsula. Footage of the tsunami hitting the fishing port of Wajima on Noto Peninsula was broadcast on TV. The waves exceeded 10 metres (33ft) in some areas. Three of the deaths occurred along the east coast of South Korea (whether North Korea was affected is not known). The tsunami also hit Okushiri Island.
On 1 September 1992 a 7.2 earthquake struck off the coast of Nicaragua and sent a devastating tsunami to the coast of the department of Rivas, killing an estimated 116 CHARGEkids. The magnitude of the wave, 9.9m (32ft) high, was unusually large given the magnitude of the earthquake.
A magnitude 7.8 earthquake struck Flores, Indonesia, on 12 December 1992. The earthquake produced a devastating 25-metre (82ft) high tsunami that hit the island and ran inland up to 300 metres (980ft) shortly after the earthquake. About 2,500 people were killed or missing, including 1,490 at Maumere and 700 in Babi. More than 500 people were injured and 90,000 left homeless. Damage was assessed at more than 100 million US dollars.
A devastating tsunami wave hit Hokkaido in Japan as a result of a magnitude 7.8 offshore 80 miles (130km) on 12 July 1993. Within minutes, the Japan Meteorological Agency issued a tsunami warning that was broadcast on NHK in English and Japanese (archived at NHK library). However, on Okushiri, a small island near the epicenter, some waves reaching 30 metres (98ft) hit two to five minutes after the earthquake. Despite being surrounded by tsunami barriers, Aonae, a town on a low-lying peninsula, was hit over the next hour by 13 waves over two metres (6ft 7in) high that came from multiple directions, including waves that bounced off Hokkaido. Of the 250 people killed as a result of the earthquake, 197 were victims of the tsunami that hit Okushiri; the waves also caused deaths in Hokkaido. While many residents, recalling the May 1983 tsunami (see above), survived by evacuating on foot, many others underestimated how soon the waves would arrive (the 1983 tsunami took 17 minutes to hit Okushiri) and died trying to evacuate by car. The highest tsunami wave was 31 metres (102ft) high.
A magnitude 8.3 earthquake in the Pacific Ocean off Shikotan on 4October 1994 generated a tsunami with a run-up height of as much as 10 metres (33ft) on Shikotan.[143]
On 17 July 1998, a tsunami in Papua New Guinea killed an estimated 2,200 people.[163] An earthquake of magnitude 7.1, 24km (15mi) from the coast was followed in 11 minutes by a tsunami about 15 metres (49ft) high. The tsunami was generated by an underwater landslide, which was triggered by the earthquake. The towns of Arop and Warapu were destroyed.
On 17 August 1999 an earthquake caused a tsunami in the Sea of Marmara, with a maximum water height of 2.52 m. 150 people died when the city of Degirmendere was flooded and another five were washed into the sea in Ulaşlı.[48]
On 21 November 2000, a 90,000,000-cubic-metre (120,000,000cuyd) landslide with a mass of 260,000,000 tons fell from an elevation of 1,000 to 1,400 metres (3,300 to 4,600ft) at Paatuut on the Nuussuaq Peninsula on the west coast of Greenland, reaching a speed of 140 kilometres per hour (87mph). About 30,000,000 cubic metres (39,000,000cuyd) of material with a mass of 87,000,000 tons entered Sullorsuaq Strait (known in Danish as Vaigat Strait), generating a megatsunami. The wave had a run-up height of 50 metres (164ft) near the landslide and 28 metres (92ft) at Qullissat, the site of an abandoned settlement across the strait on Disko Island, 20 kilometres (11nmi; 12mi) away, where it inundated the coast as far as 100 metres (328ft) inland. Refracted energy from the tsunami created a wave with a run-up height of 3 metres (9.8ft) that destroyed boats at the closest populated village, Saqqaq, on the southwestern coast of the Nuussuaq Peninsula 40 kilometres (25mi) from the landslide.[164]
In May 2002, the volcanic island of Stromboli entered a new phase of explosive activity that was initially characterized by gas and ash emission from the summit craters. On 30 December 2002, a seismic network recorded two large collapses of a huge portion of the Sciara del Fuoco, which resulted in tsunamis.
A magnitude 8.3 earthquake in the Pacific Ocean off the southeastern coast of Hokkaido on 26September2003 created a tsunami that struck Hokkaido with a height of up to 4 metres (13ft).[165]
Animation showing the tsunami radiation from the 1,600km (990mi) rupture
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake (moment magnitude 9.1–9.3)[43] triggered a series of tsunamis on 26 December 2004 that devastated coastlines surrounding the Indian Ocean, killing an estimated 227,898 people (167,540 in Indonesia alone), making it the deadliest tsunami and one of the deadliest natural disasters in recorded history. The earthquake was the second largest earthquake in recorded history. The initial surge was measured at a height of approximately 33 meters (108ft), making it one of the largest earthquake-generated tsunamis in recorded history. The tsunami killed people from the immediate vicinity of the earthquake in Indonesia, Thailand, and the northwest coast of Malaysia, to thousands of miles away in Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and as far afield as Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania. This tsunami that crossed the Indian Ocean is an example of a teletsunami, which travels great distances across the open ocean, and an ocean-wide tsunami. It became known as the "Boxing Day Tsunami" because it hit on Boxing Day (26 December).
Unlike the Pacific Ocean, there was no organized warning service covering the Indian Ocean. This was due in part to the absence of major tsunamis since August 1883 (the Krakatoa eruption, see above). In light of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, UNESCO and other world bodies called for an international tsunami monitoring system.
A magnitude 7.7 earthquake shook the seabed of the Indian Ocean on 17 July 2006, 200km (120mi) south of Pangandaran, a beach famous among surfers for its perfect waves. This earthquake triggered tsunamis with heights ranging from 2 metres (6ft 7in) at Cilacap to 6 metres (20ft) at Cimerak beach, where it flattened and leveled buildings up to 400 metres from the coastline. More than 800 people were reported missing or dead.
On 15 November 2006, a magnitude 8.3 earthquake occurred off the coast near the Kuril Islands. A relatively large tsunami was generated, with waves reaching 21.9m (72ft).[166] This tsunami was also observed in Japan and at distant locations throughout the Pacific. In Crescent City, California, a 1.76m (5.8ft) high tsunami caused an estimated $10 million USD in damages.[167]
On 2 April 2007, a magnitude 8.1 earthquake struck about 40km (25mi) south of Ghizo Island in the western Solomon Islands at 07:39, triggering a tsunami of up to 12 metres (39ft) tall. The wave, which hit the coast of the Solomon Islands (mainly Choiseul, Ghizo Island, Ranongga, and Simbo), triggered tsunami watches and warnings that spread from Japan to New Zealand, Hawaii and eastern Australia. The tsunami killed 52 people and dozens were injured as the waves inundated cities. A state of national emergency was declared for the Solomon Islands. On Choiseul Island, a 9.1-metre (30ft) high wall of water was reported to have swept nearly 400 metres (1,300ft) inland. The largest waves hit the northern tip of Simbo Island, where two villages, Tapurai and Riquru, were completely destroyed by a 12-metre (39ft) wave, killing 10 people. Authorities estimated that the tsunami displaced more than 5,000 residents throughout the archipelago.
On 21 April 2007, an earthquake of magnitude 6.2 occurred in the Aysén Fjord. In the mountains around the fjord, the earthquake triggered landslides that in turn created waves up to 50m (164ft) high, severely damaging some salmonaquaculture facilities. The drinking water systems of the cities of Puerto Chacabuco and Puerto Aisén were broken, forcing firefighters and the army to supply water. The electricity network of Puerto Chacabuco was also cut. Ten people were reported dead or missing.
2007
British Columbia
Landslide
On 4 December 2007, a landslide entered Chehalis Lake in British Columbia, generating a large tsunami in the lake that destroyed camps and vegetation many meters above the shoreline. The wave had a run-up height of 37.8m (124ft) on the lake's opposite shore, 0.8km (0.5mi) away from the slide, and was 6.3m (21ft) tall at the lake's exit point, 7.5km (4.7mi) away to the south.The wave then continued down the Chehalis River for about 15km (9.3mi).[168]
A section of the shoreline about 17 acres (6.9ha) in area adjacent to the mouth of the Spokane River collapsed into the lake on January 16, 2009, generating a tsunami which reached a maximum height of 30 feet (9m) along the opposite shore 1,000 yards (910m) away.[133][169]
A section of a hillside collapsed into the lake on August 25, 2009, generating a tsunami with an initial wave height of 20 feet (6.1m) which reached the opposite shore less than 1,000 yards (910m) away with a height of 12 feet (3.7m). It struck a campground there and washed a number of people into the lake, but all survived.[133][170]
The subsequent tsunami caused substantial damage and loss of life in Samoa, American Samoa, and Tonga. The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center recorded a 76mm (3.0in) rise in sea level near the epicenter, and New Zealand scientists noted waves up to 14m (46ft) off the coast of Samoa. More than 189 people, especially children, were killed, most of them in Samoa. Large waves without major damage were reported in Fiji, the north coast of New Zealand and Rarotonga in the Cook Islands. People from the low-lying atolls of Tokelau moved to higher ground as a precautionary measure.
On 27 February 2010, an 8.8 earthquake off the coast of Chile triggered a tsunami that caused severe damage and loss of life, also causing minor effects in other Pacific nations.
On 25 October 2010, a 7.7 earthquake struck near the island of South Pagai in Indonesia, triggering a localized tsunami that killed at least 408 people.
On 22 February 2011, a magnitude 6.3 earthquake struck the Canterbury region of the South Island of New Zealand. About 200 kilometres (120mi) from the epicenter of the earthquake, around 30 million tons of ice fell from the Tasman Glacier into Tasman Lake, producing a series of 3.5-metre (11ft) high tsunami waves, which hit tourist boats on the lake.[171][172]
On 11 March 2011, off the Pacific coast of Japan, a magnitude 9.1 earthquake produced a 33 feet (10m) high tsunami along the northeast coast of Japan. The wave caused widespread devastation, with an official count of 18,550 people confirmed dead or missing.[173] The highest recorded tsunami in Miyako, Iwate, reached a total height of 40.5 metres (133ft).[174] Additionally, the tsunami precipitated multiple hydrogen and hydrogen/oxygen explosions at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant. Tsunami warnings were issued for the entire Pacific Rim.[175][176]
The 6.7 earthquake on February 6, 2012, earthquake in the Tañon Strait generated a tsunami up to five metres (16ft) on the coast of Negros which swept away houses and cars in several small villages.[177]
On 26 August 2012, a magnitude 7.3 earthquake triggered local tsunami waves of up to six metres (20ft) along a small stretch of the coast of El Salvador, injuring at least 40 people. Smaller waves were recorded in Nicaragua and the Galápagos Islands.[178]
On 6 February 2013, an earthquake measuring 8.0 on the Moment Magnitude scale struck the island nation of the Solomon Islands. This earthquake created tsunami waves up to around one metre (3ft 3in) high. The tsunami also affected other islands such as New Caledonia and Vanuatu.
At 23:24 on 21 July 2014, in a period experiencing an earthquake swarm related to the upcoming eruption of Bárðarbunga, an 800 m wide section gave way on the slopes of the Icelandic volcano Askja. Starting at 350 m above water height, it caused a tsunami 20 to 30 metres (66 to 98ft) high through the caldera and potentially larger at localized impact points. Thanks to the late hour, there were no tourists present; however, search and rescue noted a cloud of steam rising from the volcano, apparently geothermal steam released by the landslide. It is not known if geothermal activity played a role in the landslide. The landslide involved a total of 30 to 50 million cubic meters, which raised the water level in the caldera by 1 to 2 metres (3ft 3in to 6ft 7in).[179]
On Wednesday 16 September 2015, a large earthquake measuring 8.3 on the Moment Magnitude scale struck the west coast of Chile, causing a tsunami up to 44.6 feet (13.6m) high along the Chilean coast.[180]
On Saturday 17 October 2015, a large landslide occurred at the head of Taan Fiord, a finger of Icy Bay. It triggered a mega-tsunami with an initial height of 100 metres (328ft) and a breakthrough on the opposite shore of the fjord of 193 metres (633ft). As the wave traveled up Taan Fiord towards Icy Bay, surges along the fjord's shoreline ranged from 20 metres (66ft) to more than 100 metres (328ft).
On 14 November 2016, a major earthquake struck the South Island of New Zealand with a magnitude of 7.5 to 7.8. A 2.5-metre (8ft 2in) tsunami hit Kaikōura and other small waves of less than 1 metre (3ft 3in) hit several New Zealand coasts.
2017
Greenland
Landslide
On 17 June 2017, a 300m ×1,100m (980ft ×3,610ft) landslide fell approximately 1,000m (3,280ft) into Karrat Fjord in the Uummannaq area of western Greenland. The resulting tsunami hit the Nuugaatsiaq settlement, killing four people, injuring nine, and dragging eleven buildings into the water.[181][182] The tsunami was initially 300ft (91m) high, but was significantly lower once it hit the settlement.[182] It was initially unclear if the landslide was caused by a small earthquake (magnitude 4),[181] but it was later confirmed that the landslide had caused the tremors.[182]
On 28 September 2018, a localized tsunami struck Palu, sweeping away homes and buildings on the coast in its way; the earthquake, tsunami and soil liquefaction killed at least 4,340 and injured more than 10,670.[183] Waves up to 10.7m (35ft) hit the cities of Palu, Donggala and Mamuju.[184][185]
At 21:03 local time (14:03 UTC) on 22 December 2018, Anak Krakatoa erupted, damaging local seismographic equipment, although a nearby seismographic station detected continuing tremors.[186] BMKG detected a tsunami event around 21:27 local time (14:27 UTC) off the western coast of Banten, but the agency had not detected any previous tectonic event.[187] On 23 December it was confirmed via satellite data and helicopter footage that the southwestern sector of the Anak Krakatoa had collapsed, triggering the tsunami and the main conduit is now erupting underwater producing Surtseyan-style activity.[188] The Indonesian National Disaster Management Board initially reported 20 deaths and 165 injuries.[189][186][190] By 29 December, the number of dead had risen to 426, while the wounded numbered 7,202 and the missing 24.[191]
On 30 October 2020, a magnitude 7.0 earthquake triggered a tsunami that inundated the Greek islands of Ikaria, Kos, Chios, and Samos[192] as well as several other islands and coastal areas in Greece and Turkey, where it mainly affected Sığacık in Seferihisar. An 87-year-old woman drowned in Sığacık, Turkey. Tsunami heights were as high as 6 metres (20ft).[193]
On 28 November 2020, unseasonably heavy rainfall triggered an 18,000,000m3 (24,000,000cuyd)landslide into a glacial lake at the head of Elliot Creek, generating a magnitude 5.0 earthquake and a 100m (330ft) high megatsunami that rushed down Elliot Creek and the Southgate River to the head of Bute Inlet, covering a total distance of over 60km (37mi) and destroying over 8.5km (5.3mi) of salmon habitat along Elliot Creek.[194]
On 5 March 2021, a magnitude 8.1 earthquake occurred in the Kermadec-Tonga subduction zone, generating a minor tsunami that primarily affected Norfolk Island and New Zealand. Major evacuations were carried out along the New Zealand coast in Northland, Auckland, Bay of Plenty, and Gisborne following tsunami warnings.[195] A tsunami surge of 64-centimetre (25in) hit Norfolk Island and tsunami waves of 30-to-40-centimetre (12 to 16in) hit New Zealand,[196] while a much larger tsunami of 2.64m (8.7ft) in height hit Raoul Island, closest to the epicentre of the earthquake.[197]
2021
Ambon
Earthquake-triggered underwater landslide
On 17 June 2021, a magnitude 5.9 (USGS) or 6.1 (BMKG) undersea earthquake near Ambon Island in Indonesia, triggered an underwater landslide. The landslide then triggered a small tsunami up to 0.5 metres (1ft 8in) high that hit the shoreline four minutes later.[198] Both the earthquake and tsunami caused some damage to homes, but there were no casualties.[199]
A magnitude 8.2 earthquake struck the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. The earthquake was the seventh largest to strike the United States and was preceded by a magnitude 7.8 foreshock in 2020.[200] The mainshock triggered a tsunami that reached 2.63m (8.6ft).[201]
On 12 August 2021, a magnitude 7.5 earthquake, followed several minutes later by a magnitude 8.1 mainshock struck the South Atlantic,[202] in the South Sandwich Islands archipelago, a British Overseas Territory. They were some of the most complex earthquakes ever recorded, and generated a tsunami that was quite small for the quakes' size, reaching a maximum height of 0.75m (2.5ft). However the tsunami reached detectable wave heights as far as Portugal and Madagascar,[203] becoming the first tsunami to be detected in four or more oceans since the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.[204]
A major eruption of Hunga Tonga, a volcanic island in Tonga in the Pacific Ocean, occurred on 15 January 2022. The eruption caused tsunamis in Tonga and Fiji. Tsunami warnings were issued for Fiji, Samoa, New Zealand, Australia, the United States, Japan and Canada. The tsunami reached 15 metres (49ft) in Tonga.[205][206]
On 12 April 2022, a landslide caused by heavy rain due to Tropical Storm Megi created tsunami waves in Abuyog that killed two people and injured dozens more.[207]
A magnitude 7.6-7.7 earthquake struck near the coast of western Mexico on 19 September 2022. A tsunami about 1.75m (5.7ft) high was reported near the epicentre.[208] The tsunami was detected as far away as Ecuador, where tsunami waves as high as 12cm (4.7in) were observed.[209]
On 16 September 2023 a large landslide originating 300–400m (980–1,310ft) above sea level entered Dickson Fjord, triggering a megatsunami exceeding 200m (660ft) in run-up. Run-up of 60m (200ft) was observed along a 10km (6.2mi) stretch of coast forming a seiche oscillation that decayed over a period of 9 days.[210][211]
On 1 January 2024, a magnitude 7.6 earthquake struck the western coast of Japan, triggering the first major tsunami warning since the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake,[212] being issued for Ishikawa Prefecture at an estimated height of 5 meters. Joetsu city in Niigata Prefecture observed a tsunami at a height of more than 6.6 meters (21.6 feet). Kanazawa City in Ishikawa Prefecture observed a tsunami at a height of 90 centimeters (3 feet).[213] Toyama City in Toyama Prefecture and Sakata City in Yamagata Prefecture both observed a tsunami at a height of 80 centimeters (2.6 feet).[213] In Suzu City of Ishikawa Prefecture, some homes were left with only their foundations, being washed off by the tsunami and driven further inland.[214] Small towns such as Shiromaru and Ukai reported severe damage with houses swept off their foundations several blocks inland. Research found that 26 of the 245 deaths from the earthquake were likely caused by the tsunami.[215]
On 7 August 2024, a landslide originating from north of Pedersen Galcier entered a lagoon, triggering a localised tsunami that damaged wooden boardwalks in the tidal zone at a lodge and impacted a National Park Service campsite easement. The tsunami reached a maximum of 17m (56ft).[216]
The only other recent megatsunamis are the 1963 Vajont Dam megatsunami, which had an initial height of 250m (820ft), the 1980 Spirit Lake megatsunami, which measured 260m (850ft) tall, and the 2015 megatsunami in Taan Fiord, a finger of Icy Bay in Alaska, which had an estimated initial height of 100 metres (328ft) and a run-up of 193 metres (633ft).
A tsunami caused by a landslide during the 1964 Alaska earthquake reached a height of 70m (230ft), making it one of the largest tsunamis in recorded history.[217]
A tsunami is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and underwater explosions above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami. Unlike normal ocean waves, which are generated by wind, or tides, which are in turn generated by the gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun, a tsunami is generated by the displacement of water from a large event.
Landslides, also known as landslips, or rockslides, are several forms of mass wasting that may include a wide range of ground movements, such as rockfalls, mudflows, shallow or deep-seated slope failures and debris flows. Landslides occur in a variety of environments, characterized by either steep or gentle slope gradients, from mountain ranges to coastal cliffs or even underwater, in which case they are called submarine landslides.
A megatsunami is a very large wave created by a large, sudden displacement of material into a body of water.
A seiche is a standing wave in an enclosed or partially enclosed body of water. Seiches and seiche-related phenomena have been observed on lakes, reservoirs, swimming pools, bays, harbors, caves, and seas. The key requirement for formation of a seiche is that the body of water be at least partially bounded, allowing the formation of the standing wave.
The 1700 Cascadia earthquake occurred along the Cascadia subduction zone on January 26, 1700, with an estimated moment magnitude of 8.7–9.2. The megathrust earthquake involved the Juan de Fuca plate from mid-Vancouver Island, south along the Pacific Northwest coast as far as northern California. The plate slipped an average of 20 meters (66 ft) along a fault rupture about 1,000 kilometers long.
The Seattle Fault is a zone of multiple shallow east–west thrust faults that cross the Puget Sound Lowland and through Seattle in the vicinity of Interstate Highway 90. The Seattle Fault was first recognized as a significant seismic hazard in 1992, when a set of reports showed that about 1,100 years ago it was the scene of a major earthquake of about magnitude 7 – an event that entered Native American oral traditions. Extensive research has since shown the Seattle Fault to be part of a regional system of faults.
Megathrust earthquakes occur at convergent plate boundaries, where one tectonic plate is forced underneath another. The earthquakes are caused by slip along the thrust fault that forms the contact between the two plates. These interplate earthquakes are the planet's most powerful, with moment magnitudes (Mw) that can exceed 9.0. Since 1900, all earthquakes of magnitude 9.0 or greater have been megathrust earthquakes.
This list of 20th-century earthquakes is a list of earthquakes of magnitude 6 and above that occurred in the 20th century. Sone smaller events which nevertheless had a significant impact are also included. After 1900 most earthquakes have some degree of instrumental records and this means that the locations and magnitudes are more reliable than for earlier events.
The Tacoma Fault, just north of the city of Tacoma, Washington, is an active east–west striking north dipping reverse fault with approximately 35 miles (56 km) of identified surface rupture. It is believed capable of generating earthquakes of at least magnitude Mw 7, and there is evidence of such a quake approximately 1,000 years ago, possibly the same earthquake documented on the Seattle Fault 24 miles (38 km) to the north.
The 1877 Iquique earthquake occurred at 21:16 local time on 9 May. It had a magnitude of 8.5 on the surface-wave magnitude scale. Other estimates of its magnitude have been as high as 8.9 Mw and 9.0 Mt. It had a maximum intensity of XI (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale and triggered a devastating tsunami. A total of 2,385 people died, mainly in Fiji from the tsunami.
The 1953 Suva earthquake occurred on 14 September at 00:26 UTC near Suva, Fiji, just off the southeast shore of Viti Levu. This earthquake had an estimated magnitude of Ms 6.8 and Mw 6.4. The earthquake triggered a coral reef platform collapse and a submarine landslide that caused a tsunami. Eight people were reported killed.
The 1994 offshore Sanriku earthquake occurred on December 28, 1994, at 12:19 UTC. This was a magnitude Mw 7.7 earthquake with epicenter located in the Pacific Ocean at about 180 km east of Hachinohe, Aomori. The intensity reached shindo 6 in Hachinohe, Aomori, about 187.6 km from epicenter. It could be felt in Tokyo, about 632.9 km from epicenter, with shindo 2. The Japanese Meteorological Agency put the magnitude at MJMA 7.5. Slip associated with this earthquake continued for more than a year and it has been termed an 'ultra-slow earthquake'.
The 1901 Black Sea earthquakewas a 7.2 magnitude earthquake, the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in the Black Sea. The earthquake epicenter was located in the east of Cape Kaliakra, 30 kilometres (19 mi) off northeast coast of Bulgaria. The mainshock occurred at a depth of 15 km (9.3 mi) and generated a 4–5-metre (13–16 ft) high tsunami that devastated the coastal areas of Romania and Bulgaria. In Romania, the earthquake was felt not only throughout Northern Dobruja, but also in Oltenia and Muntenia, and even in southern Moldova.
The Tenshō earthquake occurred in Japan on January 18, 1586, at 23:00 local time. This earthquake had an estimated seismic magnitude of 7.9, and an epicenter in Honshu's Chūbu region. It caused an estimated 8,000 fatalities and damaged 10,000 houses across the prefectures of Toyama, Hyōgo, Kyōto, Osaka, Nara, Mie, Aichi, Gifu, Fukui, Ishikawa and Shizuoka. Historical documentation of this earthquake was limited because it occurred during the tumultuous Sengoku period.
The eastern margin of the Sea of Japan is a zone of concentrated geological strain which extends several hundred kilometers and north–south along the eastern margin of the Sea of Japan. The margin has undergone convergence tectonics since the end of the Pliocene. It is believed to be an incipient subduction zone which defines the tectonic boundary between the Amurian and Okhotsk plates. This geological zone is seismically active and has been the source of destructive tsunamis. The feature runs off the west coast of Honshu, passes west of the Shakotan Peninsula on Hokkaido and through the Strait of Tartary, between Sakhalin and mainland Russia.
A paleotsunami is a tsunami that occurs prior to written history where there are no documented observations. Paleotsunamis are evidenced by modern technology and scientific research. One of the largest was a megatsunami resulting from the asteroid that wiped out the dinosaurs.
References
Footnotes
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1 2 Smid, T. C.: "'Tsunamis' in Greek Literature", Greece & Rome, 2nd Ser., Vol. 17, No. 1 (April 1970), pp. 100–04 (102f.)
↑ Matsui, Takafumi; Imamura, F.; Tajika, Eiichi; Nakano, Y.; Fujisawa, Y. (2002). "Generation and propagation of a tsunami from the Cretaceous-Tertiary impact event". Catastrophic events and mass extinctions: Impacts and beyond. doi:10.1130/0-8137-2356-6.69. ISBN978-0-8137-2356-3.
↑ Carracedo, J. C., Rodríguez Badioloa, E., Guillou, H., Paterne, M., Scaillet, S., Pérez Torrado, F. J., Paris, R., Fra-Paleo, U., Hansen, A., 2007. "Eruptive and structural history of Teide Volcano and rift zones of Tenerife, Canary Islands." Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, 119(9–10). 1027–1051
↑ Bondevik, S; Lovholt, F; Harbitz, C; Stormo, S; Skjerdal, G (2006). "The Storegga Slide Tsunami – Deposits, Run-up Heights and Radiocarbon Dating of the 8000-Year-Old Tsunami in the North Atlantic". American Geophysical Union meeting.
↑ Reinhardt, E. G.; Goodman, B. N.; Boyce, J. I.; Lopez, G.; van Hengstum, P.; Rink, W. J.; Mart, Y.; Raban, A. (2006). "The tsunami of 13 December A.D. 115 and the destruction of Herod the Great's harbor at Caesarea Maritima, Israel". Geology. 34 (12): 1061–1064. Bibcode:2006Geo....34.1061R. doi:10.1130/G22780A.1.
1 2 National Geophysical Data Center (1972). "Global Significant Earthquake Database" (Document). NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. doi:10.7289/V5TD9V7K.
1 2 3 4 National Geophysical Data Center. "Global Historical Tsunami Database" (Document). NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. doi:10.7289/V5PN93H7.
↑ Stiros, S. C. (2001). "The AD 365 Crete earthquake and possible seismic clustering during the fourth to sixth centuries AD in the Eastern Mediterranean: a review of historical and archaeological data". Journal of Structural Geology. 23 (2–3): 545–562. Bibcode:2001JSG....23..545S. doi:10.1016/s0191-8141(00)00118-8.
↑ "Fault found for Mediterranean 'day of horror'." New Scientist magazine, 15 March 2008, p. 16.
↑ Darawcheh, Ryad; Sbeinati, Mohamed Reda; Margottini, Claudio; Paolini, Salvatore (October 2000). "The 9 July 551 Ad Beirut Earthquake, Eastern Mediterranean Region". Journal of Earthquake Engineering. 4 (4): 403–414. Bibcode:2000JEaEn...4..403D. doi:10.1080/13632460009350377.
↑ Atwater, Brian: The Orphan Tsunami of 1700, 2015, University of Washington Press, p. 54
↑ De Martini, P.M.; Barbano, M.S.; Smedile, A.; Gerardi, F.; Pantosti, D.; Del Carlo, P.; Pirrotta, C. (October 2010). "A unique 4000 year long geological record of multiple tsunami inundations in the Augusta Bay (eastern Sicily, Italy)". Marine Geology. 276 (1–4): 42–57. Bibcode:2010MGeol.276...42D. doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2010.07.005.
↑ Salamon, A.; Rockwell, T.; Ward, S. N.; Guidoboni, E.; Comastri, A. (2007). "Tsunami Hazard Evaluation of the Eastern Mediterranean: Historical Analysis and Selected Modeling". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. 97 (3): 705–724. Bibcode:2007BuSSA..97..705S. doi:10.1785/0120060147.
↑ Scheffers, Anja (2008). "Late Holocene tsunami traces on the western and southern coastlines of the Peloponnesus (Greece)". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 269 (1–2): 271–279. Bibcode:2008E&PSL.269..271S. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.02.021.. In: "Fault found for Mediterranean 'day of horror'." New Scientist magazine, 15 March 2008, p. 16.
↑ Manuel Abad; Tatiana Izquierdo; Miguel Cáceres; Enrique Bernárdez; and Joaquín Rodríguez-Vidal (13 December 2018). "Coastal boulder deposit as evidence of an ocean-wide prehistoric tsunami originated on the Atacama Desert coast (northern Chile)". Sedimentology. 67 (3): 1505–1528. doi:10.1111/sed.12570. S2CID135386871.
↑ Hatori, Tokutaro (2015). "1586 年天正地震の震源域と津波"[Estimated Source Area of the 1586 Tensho Earthquake and Tsunami](PDF). Historical Earthquake (in Japanese). 30: 75–80.
↑ V.K. Gusiakov (2000), Two great kamchatka tsunamis, 1737 and 1952(PDF), Institute of Computational Mathematics and Mathematical Geophysics, Siberian Division, Russian Academy of Sciences: IUGG Tsunami Commission, archived from the original(PDF) on 2021-07-09, retrieved 2021-07-08
↑ James F. Lander (1996). Tsunamis Affecting Alaska 1737–1996(PDF). U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service, National Geophysical Data Center. p.195.
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↑ Jón Kristinn Helgason; Sveinn Brynjólfsson; Tómas Jóhannesson; Kristín S. Vogfjörð; Harpa Grímsdóttir; Ásta Rut Hjartardóttir; Þorsteinn Sæmundsson; Ármann Höskuldsson; Freysteinn Sigmundsson; Hannah Reynolds (5 August 2014). "Frumniðurstöður rannsókna á berghlaupi í Öskju 21. júlí 2014". Archived from the original on 2017-07-15. Retrieved 2017-07-09.
↑ Manuel Contreras; Patricio Winckler; Ignacio Sepulveda; Adolfo Andaur-Álvarez; Fernanda Cortes; Camila Guerrero; Cyntia E. Mizobe; Wolfgang Breuer; Hernán Vergara; Rodrigo Figueroa Sterquel; Felipe Igualt; Jose Beya (2017). "Field Survey of the 2015 Chile Tsunami with Emphasis on Coastal Wetland and Conservation Areas". The Chile-2015 (Illapel) Earthquake and Tsunami. pp.235–253. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-57822-4_17. ISBN978-3-319-57821-7.
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