3-Nitrooxypropanol

Last updated
3-Nitrooxypropanol
3-Nitrooxypropanol.svg
Names
Preferred IUPAC name
3-Hydroxypropyl nitrate
Other names
Bovaer, 3-NOP, 3NOP, abrucomstat
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
ChEMBL
ChemSpider
ECHA InfoCard 100.225.103 OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
EC Number
  • 695-997-8
PubChem CID
UNII
  • InChI=1S/C3H7NO4/c5-2-1-3-8-4(6)7/h5H,1-3H2
    Key: PTMLFFXFTRSBJW-UHFFFAOYSA-N
  • C(CO)CO[N+](=O)[O-]
Properties
C3H7NO4
Molar mass 121.092 g·mol−1
AppearanceColorless liquid
Density 1.12 g/cm3
Melting point −20 °C (−4 °F; 253 K)
Boiling point 120 °C (248 °F; 393 K)
Soluble
Hazards
Occupational safety and health (OHS/OSH):
Main hazards
Irritant to skin and eyes, harmful if inhaled
GHS labelling:
GHS-pictogram-flamme.svg GHS-pictogram-acid.svg GHS-pictogram-exclam.svg GHS-pictogram-silhouette.svg
Danger
H242, H302, H315, H318, H319, H335, H361
P203, P210, P234, P240, P261, P264, P264+P265, P270, P271, P280, P301+P317, P302+P352, P304+P340, P305+P351+P338, P305+P354+P338, P317, P318, P319, P321, P330, P332+P317, P337+P317, P362+P364, P370+P378, P403, P403+P233, P405, P410, P411, P420, P501
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).

3-Nitrooxypropanol (abbreviated as 3-NOP or 3NOP) is a synthetic organic compound with the formula HOCH2CH2CH2ONO2. [1] It is the mononitrate ester of 1,3-propanediol and acts as an enzyme inhibitor that specifically targets methyl coenzyme M reductase (MCR), the enzyme that catalyzes the final step of methanogenesis in microbes living in the digestive system of ruminants, such as cows and sheep. [2]

Contents

When added to the feed of ruminant animals, it significantly lowers methane emissions by inhibiting the activity of MCR without being incorporated into milk or meat. [3] It causes a slight increase in feed conversion without affecting raw yields. Studies have demonstrated that methane output is lowered by 30%. [4] [5]

Description

DSM has patented and commercialized 3-NOP as a methane inhibitor for production animals under the brand name Bovaer, a feed additive. [1] [6] The formulation consists of silicon dioxide (60% w/w), propylene glycol, and 3-nitrooxypropanol (10% w/w). [7]

History

The development of Bovaer began in 2010 as part of the Clean Cow project initiated by DSM-Firmenich. This project aimed to address methane emissions from livestock, which are a major source of greenhouse gases. According to Maik Kindermann, head of research and development for the Bovaer project, the research commenced in 2008 with a focus on understanding the molecular mechanisms behind methane formation in ruminants. [8]

The first successful trials were conducted in 2010 and over 40 trials were conducted to ensure efficacy and safety across different cattle diets and environments. [9]

In 2021, Bovaer received its first approvals for use in Brazil and Chile, followed by authorization from the European Union for dairy cattle in 2022. The product was subsequently approved for use in Canada in early 2024 and received FDA approval for the U.S. market in May 2024. [8] In April 2022, Elanco was granted exclusive licensing rights to develop and commercialize Bovaer in the United States. [10] In June 2023, Elanco requested a consultation with the U.S. FDA's Center for Veterinary Medicine regarding Bovaer's drug status for use as a methane inhibitor in dairy cows. On May 24, 2024, the U.S. FDA concluded that Bovaer can lower methane production when used as labeled and poses a low risk to animals and humans under its sale conditions. [7]

Safety

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) concluded that Bovaer meets safety and efficacy standards for use in lactating dairy cattle, stating that it does not negatively impact milk production or quality. [11] [8] Additionally, a scientific opinion by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) found that Bovaer is safe for dairy cows at the maximum recommended levels and poses no significant risk to consumer food safety or the environment. [8]

3-NOP can be harmful if inhaled and is an irritant to the skin and eyes. [12] [8] Although concerns have been raised claiming a lack of long-term studies, [13] three such studies do in fact exist as of November 2021 and were taken into account by the EFSA's regulatory analysis. [3] Arla Foods has claimed that Bovaer will not affect milk quality or safety, as it does not transfer from cow to milk; [13] this too is supported by the EFSA review. [3]

3-NOP is metabolized very quickly into compounds that are naturally present in the rumen of cows. [1]

Reception

In November 2024, Arla Foods announced a collaborative trial involving major UK retailers such as Morrisons, Tesco and Aldi to test Bovaer on approximately 30 farms in the UK. [14] [12]

Despite the potential benefits, the trial has faced significant backlash from consumers who have called for a boycott of Arla's products, particularly Lurpak butter. Critics have expressed concerns over the safety and ethical implications of using additives like Bovaer in livestock feed, with some consumers mistakenly believing that the additive is included in the milk itself. [12] [15]

Arla has defended the trial, asserting that Bovaer has been extensively tested and approved by regulatory bodies such as the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and the UK Food Standards Agency. The company insists that there will be no negative impact on animal health or milk quality during the trial. [14] [16] In response to these challenges, Arla is actively seeking government support to facilitate the adoption of sustainable practices among farmers, highlighting that financial assistance could play a crucial role in transitioning to greener methods. [14] [12]

Environmental impact

Bovaer aims to contribute to climate change mitigation by lowering enteric methane emissions from dairy cows. The feed additive, known scientifically as 3-nitrooxypropanol (3-NOP), has shown significant potential in reducing methane production in livestock. Studies indicate that feeding one tablespoon of Bovaer per lactating dairy cow per day can lead to a reduction of approximately 30% in methane emissions, which is equivalent to about 1.2 metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) per cow annually. [17] [8]

A comprehensive study conducted in the Netherlands involving 150 dairy farms and over 20,000 cows demonstrated that Bovaer is more effective at higher dosages and when incorporated with corn in the cattle's diet. [8] Additionally, trials in Italy reported methane reductions of up to 50% when Bovaer was administered daily to lactating cows. [8] The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has concluded that Bovaer is safe for use in dairy cattle, with no significant adverse effects on milk production, composition, or animal health observed during trials. [17] [11] Furthermore, the product has been approved for use in over 55 countries, including Brazil, Chile, and Canada, reflecting its global acceptance and potential impact on reducing agricultural greenhouse gas emissions. [8]

In addition to its environmental benefits, the use of Bovaer could provide financial incentives for farmers through participation in voluntary carbon markets and conservation programs, potentially yielding returns of $20 or more per lactating cow annually. [18] According to Elanco’s VP of Livestock Sustainability, Katie Cook, about 50% of this return is expected to come from carbon marketplace participation through platforms like Athian or Truterra, which allows farmers to sell verified carbon credits generated by their methane reductions. [18]

Moreover, government initiatives are also playing a crucial role. In the U.S., approximately $89 million in grants from the USDA’s Regional Conservation Partnership Program (RCPP) has been allocated to support dairy producers implementing technologies like Bovaer to reduce methane emissions. [18] [11] This funding not only incentivizes farmers to adopt sustainable practices but also helps create a robust market for carbon credits as demand for lower-carbon foods rises globally. [18]

Effects on milk

Milk production and composition

While the primary focus of 3-NOP research has been on methane reduction, its effects on milk production metrics have also been studied. Some studies found that 3-NOP supplementation led to a tendency to decrease milk yield slightly, though this effect was not always observed. [19] For instance, one study reported reductions in milk and energy-corrected milk (ECM) production by 12% and 9%, respectively, when cows were fed diets including 3-NOP. [20] A meta-analysis found that increasing levels of 3-NOP led to higher concentrations of milk fat and protein without significantly affecting overall milk yield. [21]

Feed efficiency

The introduction of 3-NOP has been associated with improved feed efficiency. Research indicates that cows supplemented with this compound exhibited better feed conversion rates, producing more milk fat or protein per unit of feed consumed. Specifically, feed efficiency improved by at least 4% across various studies. [19]

Experimental studies indicate that 3-NOP is an effective feed additive for reducing methane emissions from dairy cows while maintaining or even enhancing certain aspects of milk production. Although some studies report a slight decrease in total milk yield, the increases in milk fat and protein concentrations suggest improved overall efficiency and quality of milk. The consistent findings across diverse trials support the potential for 3-NOP to play a significant role in sustainable dairy farming practices aimed at mitigating environmental impacts while optimizing production outcomes. [22] [23] [24]

Emissions data

The use of 3-nitrooxypropanol has been studied as a method to reduce enteric methane emissions from dairy cows. Enteric methane, a potent greenhouse gas, is a significant contributor to agricultural emissions. Research indicates that the administration of 3-NOP can decrease methane emissions by approximately 30%, equivalent to a reduction of about 1.2 metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) per cow annually. [25] [26]

3-NOP has demonstrated efficacy in reducing methane emissions from dairy cows. In a study conducted at Penn State University, the addition of 3-NOP to the diet resulted in a 26% reduction in daily methane emissions, with similar findings reported across various trials. The compound works by inhibiting an enzyme crucial for methane synthesis in the rumen, thereby decreasing methane production without negatively impacting feed intake or overall lactational performance. [22] [23]

A meta-analysis encompassing data from multiple studies confirmed that 3-NOP supplementation leads to a 24% decrease in enteric methane emissions, with no adverse effects on dry matter intake (DMI) or milk yield observed. [24]

Society and culture

Conspiracy theory

In 2024, protests in the UK against the use of Bovaer have led some social media users to pour milk down sinks and toilets. Misinformation has circulated online, linking Bovaer to a supposed depopulation agenda involving Bill Gates. These unfounded claims have sparked backlash against Arla Foods, which is trialing Bovaer on its farms, and have prompted calls for boycotts of its products. Experts have clarified that Bovaer is safe and does not pose food safety risks, emphasizing that the claims linking Gates to Bovaer are false. Despite this, the conspiracy theories persist, complicating public acceptance of the additive and its potential benefits in combating climate change. [27] [28] [29]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ruminant</span> Hoofed herbivorous grazing or browsing mammals

Ruminants are herbivorous grazing or browsing artiodactyls belonging to the suborder Ruminantia that are able to acquire nutrients from plant-based food by fermenting it in a specialized stomach prior to digestion, principally through microbial actions. The process, which takes place in the front part of the digestive system and therefore is called foregut fermentation, typically requires the fermented ingesta to be regurgitated and chewed again. The process of rechewing the cud to further break down plant matter and stimulate digestion is called rumination. The word "ruminant" comes from the Latin ruminare, which means "to chew over again".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arla Foods</span> Danish-Swedish food company

Arla Foods Group is a Danish-Swedish multinational co-operative based in Viby, Denmark. It is the fifth biggest dairy company in the world and the largest producer of dairy products in Scandinavia and United Kingdom.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dairy farming</span> Long-term production of milk

Dairy farming is a class of agriculture for the long-term production of milk, which is processed for the eventual sale of a dairy product. Dairy farming has a history that goes back to the early Neolithic era, around the seventh millennium BC, in many regions of Europe and Africa. Before the 20th century, milking was done by hand on small farms. Beginning in the early 20th century, milking was done in large scale dairy farms with innovations including rotary parlors, the milking pipeline, and automatic milking systems that were commercially developed in the early 1990s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bovine somatotropin</span> Peptide hormone produced by cows pituitary glands

Bovine somatotropin or bovine somatotrophin, or bovine growth hormone (BGH), is a peptide hormone produced by cows' pituitary glands. Like other hormones, it is produced in small quantities and is used in regulating metabolic processes. Scientists created a bacterium that produces the hormone somatotropin which is produced by the cow's body after giving birth and increases milk production by around 10 percent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dairy cattle</span> Cattle bred to produce milk

Dairy cattle are cattle bred with the ability to produce large quantities of milk, from which dairy products are made. Dairy cattle generally are of the species Bos taurus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arla Foods UK</span> British dairy products subsidiary

Arla Foods Ltd. is a major dairy products company in the United Kingdom, based in Leeds, and a subsidiary of Arla Foods, which is owned by its farmer owners in seven countries including the UK.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Allura Red AC</span> Chemical compound

Allura Red AC, also known as FD&C Red 40 or E129, is a red azo dye commonly used in food. It was developed in 1971 by the Allied Chemical Corporation, who gave the substance its name.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Enteric fermentation</span> Digestive process that emits methane

Enteric fermentation is a digestive process by which carbohydrates are broken down by microorganisms into simple molecules for absorption into the bloodstream of an animal. FAO estimated that ruminant livestock contribute to around 34.5 percent of the total anthropogenic methane emissions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ractopamine</span> Animal feed additive

Ractopamine is an animal feed additive used to promote leanness and increase food conversion efficiency in farmed animals in several countries, but banned in others. Pharmacologically, it is a phenol-based TAAR1 agonist and β adrenoreceptor agonist that stimulates β1 and β2 adrenergic receptors. It is most commonly administered to animals for meat production as ractopamine hydrochloride. It is the active ingredient in products marketed in the US as Paylean for swine, Optaflexx for cattle, and Topmax for turkeys. It was developed by Elanco Animal Health, a former division of Eli Lilly and Company.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Low-carbon diet</span> Diet to reduce greenhouse gas emissions

A low-carbon diet is any diet that results in lower greenhouse gas emissions. Choosing a low carbon diet is one facet of developing sustainable diets which increase the long-term sustainability of humanity. Major tenets of a low-carbon diet include eating a plant-based diet, and in particular little or no beef and dairy. Low-carbon diets differ around the world in taste, style, and the frequency they are eaten. Asian countries like India and China feature vegetarian and vegan meals as staples in their diets. In contrast, Europe and North America rely on animal products for their Western diets.

Mootral is a British-Swiss company that is developing a food supplement to reduce methane emissions from ruminant animals, chiefly cows and sheep, but also goats. Methane is a major target greenhouse gas and in the 4th protocol report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is recommended to increase from a x23 to x72 multiplier because of the magnitude of its effect relative to carbon dioxide and short longevity in Earth's atmosphere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cattle</span> Large, domesticated, cloven-hooved herbivores

Cattle are large, domesticated, bovid ungulates widely kept as livestock. They are prominent modern members of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus Bos. Mature female cattle are called cows and mature male cattle are bulls. Young female cattle are called heifers, young male cattle are oxen or bullocks, and castrated male cattle are known as steers.

<i>Asparagopsis taxiformis</i> Species of seaweed

Asparagopsis taxiformis, formerly A. sanfordiana, is a species of red algae, with cosmopolitan distribution in tropical to warm temperate waters. Researchers have demonstrated that feeding ruminants a diet containing 0.2% A. taxiformis seaweed reduced their methane emissions by nearly 99 percent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dairy farming in Canada</span> Overview of dairy farming in Canada

Dairy farming is one of the largest agricultural sectors in Canada. Dairy has a significant presence in all of the provinces and is one of the top two agricultural commodities in seven out of ten provinces.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Delacon</span>

Delacon Biotech Nik Ges.m.b.H. is a multinational feed additive company headquartered in Engerwitzdorf, near Linz, Austria. The company develops and manufactures phytogenic feed additives for poultry, swine, ruminants and aqua since the 1980s. Delacon conducts in-house research and collaborates with independent institutes and universities.

Biosprint is a microbiological feed additive produced and worldwide distributed by the Italian biotech company prosol S.p.A. This zoo-technical additive contains cells of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae selected under the unique code MUCL™ 39885 and deposited in the Belgian collections of micro-organisms/Mycothèque de l’Université Catholique de Louvain Biosprint has gained the EU authorization as feed additive for beef cattle, piglets, sows, dairy cows and horses. According to several tests, the influence of Biosprint on the diet consists of the improvement of the digestive efficiency and of the better assimilation of nutrients.

Karen Beauchemin is a federal scientist in Canada who is recognized as an international authority on methane emissions and ruminant nutrition. Her research helps develop farming techniques that improve how we raise cattle for meat and milk, while reducing the environmental impacts of livestock production.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">FutureFeed</span>

FutureFeed is a ruminant livestock feed ingredient based on seaweed that can reduce methane emissions, established by Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). FutureFeed holds the global intellectual property to use the seaweed Asparagopsis for livestock feed. Lowered methane emissions can be achieved by the addition of a small amount of the seaweed into the daily diet of livestock. This discovery was made by a team of scientists from CSIRO and James Cook University (JCU), supported by Meat & Livestock Australia (MLA), who came together in 2013 to investigate the methane reduction potential of various native Australian seaweeds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate-smart agriculture</span> System for agricultural productivity

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is a set of farming methods that has three main objectives with regards to climate change. Firstly, they use adaptation methods to respond to the effects of climate change on agriculture. Secondly, they aim to increase agricultural productivity and to ensure food security for a growing world population. Thirdly, they try to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture as much as possible. Climate-smart agriculture works as an integrated approach to managing land. This approach helps farmers to adapt their agricultural methods to the effects of climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture</span>

The amount of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture is significant: The agriculture, forestry and land use sectors contribute between 13% and 21% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Emissions come from direct greenhouse gas emissions. And from indirect emissions. With regards to direct emissions, nitrous oxide and methane makeup over half of total greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. Indirect emissions on the other hand come from the conversion of non-agricultural land such as forests into agricultural land. Furthermore, there is also fossil fuel consumption for transport and fertilizer production. For example, the manufacture and use of nitrogen fertilizer contributes around 5% of all global greenhouse gas emissions. Livestock farming is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions. At the same time, livestock farming is affected by climate change.

References

  1. 1 2 3 "Feed supplement for dairy cows cuts their methane emission by about a quarter". The Pennsylvania State University. Retrieved 4 December 2024.
  2. ↑ Hristov, Alexander N. (2015). "An inhibitor persistently decreased enteric methane emission from dairy cows with no negative effect on milk production". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 112 (34): 10663–10668. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1504124112 . PMC   4553761 . PMID   26229078.
  3. 1 2 3 Bampidis, Vasileios; Azimonti, Giovanna; Bastos, Maria de Lourdes; Christensen, Henrik; Dusemund, Birgit; Fašmon Durjava, Mojca; Kouba, Maryline; López‐Alonso, Marta; López Puente, Secundino; Marcon, Francesca; Mayo, Baltasar; Pechová, Alena; Petkova, Mariana; Ramos, Fernando; Sanz, Yolanda; Villa, Roberto Edoardo; Woutersen, Ruud; Aquilina, Gabriele; Bories, Georges; Brantom, Paul George; Gropp, Jürgen; Svensson, Kettil; Tosti, Luca; Anguita, Montserrat; Galobart, Jaume; Manini, Paola; Tarrès‐Call, Jordi; Pizzo, Fabiola (November 2021). "Safety and efficacy of a feed additive consisting of 3‐nitrooxypropanol (Bovaer® 10) for ruminants for milk production and reproduction (DSM Nutritional Products Ltd)". EFSA Journal. 19 (11). doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2021.6905. hdl: 2434/945136 .
  4. ↑ "List of Publications" (PDF).
  5. ↑ Jenkins, T. C.; et al. (2023). "Reducing methane emissions in dairy cows: Efficacy of 3-Nitrooxypropanol". Journal of Animal Science. 94 (4): 176–182. doi:10.1093/jas/skw240 (inactive 3 December 2024).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2024 (link)
  6. ↑ "Home". @dsm-firmenich.
  7. 1 2 "CVM File: G-150438". Food and Drug Administration .
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "What Can We Really Expect from Elanco's New Bovaer®?".
  9. ↑ "Project Clean Cow".
  10. ↑ "Elanco and Royal DSM Announce Strategic Alliance in U.S. for Bovaer® – A Revolutionary, Methane-Reducing Feed Additive for Cattle | DSM". @corporate. Retrieved 2024-05-29.
  11. 1 2 3 "Elanco Announces FDA Has Completed Review of Bovaer®, First-in-Class Methane-Reducing Feed Ingredient, for U.S. Dairy Industry". @Elanco.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Art, Pop Culture & (November 28, 2024). "Boycott calls grow over Arla's Bovaer feed trial for dairy cows". The Express Tribune.
  13. 1 2 "Boycott calls grow over Arla's Bovaer feed trial for dairy cows".
  14. 1 2 3 "Arla partners with retailers to tackle methane emissions from dairy cows". New Food Magazine.
  15. ↑ Page, Jordan (December 2, 2024). "What is the Arla Foods Bovaer animal feed trial?". The Standard.
  16. ↑ Wright, Ben. "Cow 'fart vaccine' backed by Bill Gates". The Telegraph.
  17. 1 2 "FDA Greenlights Bovaer: A Revolutionary Methane-Reducing Supplement for US Dairy Cattle Launching in 2024". 29 May 2024.
  18. 1 2 3 4 "Bovaer is 'creating a self-sustaining carbon inset market for American agriculture'". 8 July 2024.
  19. 1 2 Van Gastelen, S.; Burgers EEA; Dijkstra, J.; De Mol, R.; Muizelaar, W.; Walker, N.; Bannink, A. (2024). "Long-term effects of 3-nitrooxypropanol on methane and milk production". Journal of Dairy Science. 107 (8): 5556–5573. doi: 10.3168/jds.2023-24198 . PMID   38395398 . Retrieved 2024-12-01.
  20. ↑ Maigaard, M.; Weisbjerg, M. R.; Johansen, M.; Walker, N.; Ohlsson, C.; Lund, P. (2024). "Effects of 3-NOP on milk production and composition". Journal of Dairy Science. 107 (1): 220–241. doi: 10.3168/jds.2023-23420 . PMID   37690719 . Retrieved 2024-12-01.
  21. ↑ Kebreab, Ermias; Bannink, André; Pressman, Eleanor May; Walker, Nicola; Karagiannis, Alexios; Gastelen, Sanne van; Dijkstra, Jan (1 February 2023). "A meta-analysis of effects of 3-nitrooxypropanol on methane production, yield, and intensity in dairy cattle". Journal of Dairy Science. 106 (2): 927–936. doi:10.3168/jds.2022-22211. ISSN   0022-0302. PMC   9868067 . PMID   36494226.
  22. 1 2 "Feed supplement for dairy cows cuts their methane emission by about a quarter" . Retrieved 2024-12-01.
  23. 1 2 "Summary of scientific research on how 3-NOP effectively reduces enteric methane emissions" (PDF). Retrieved 2024-12-01.
  24. 1 2 Kebreab, E.; Bannink, A.; Pressman, E. M.; Walker, N.; Karagiannis, A.; Van Gastelen, S.; Dijkstra, J. (2023). "A meta-analysis of effects of 3-nitrooxypropanol on methane emissions". Journal of Dairy Science. 106 (2): 927–936. doi:10.3168/jds.2022-22211. PMC   9868067 . PMID   36494226 . Retrieved 2024-12-01.
  25. ↑ "FDA Greenlights Bovaer: A Revolutionary Methane-Reducing Supplement for US Dairy Cattle Launching in 2024". 29 May 2024. Retrieved 2024-12-01.
  26. ↑ "What Can We Really Expect from Elanco's New Bovaer®?" . Retrieved 2024-12-01.
  27. ↑ "Why misinformation about cow feed additive Bovaer prompted people to throw Arla milk away". www.bbc.com.
  28. ↑ Witherow, Tom (7 December 2024). "How an Arla milk poison conspiracy theory spread like wildfire online". The Times .
  29. ↑ Newkey-Burden, Chas; published, The Week UK (3 December 2024). "Bovaer: the new dairy additive prompting boycotts and conspiracy theories". theweek.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.