Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy

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Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy
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Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (AION) is a medical condition involving loss of vision caused by damage to the optic nerve as a result of insufficient blood supply (ischemia). This form of ischemic optic neuropathy is generally categorized as two types: arteritic AION (or AAION), in which the loss of vision is the result of an inflammatory disease of arteries in the head called temporal arteritis, and non-arteritic AION (abbreviated as NAION , NAAION, [1] or sometimes simply as AION), which is due to non-inflammatory disease of small blood vessels. [2]

Contents

Symptoms

NAION typically presents suddenly upon awakening. The affected person notes seeing poorly in one eye. Vision in that eye is obscured by a dark shadow, often involving just the upper or lower half of vision, usually the area closer to the nose. There is no pain. Within approximately six months following the infarct, visual acuity improves by three or more lines of vision on the Snellen Chart (the chart with smaller letters on each lower line) in 42.7% of patients, while in 12.4% of patients, vision worsens by three lines. Opposite eye involvement occurs in approximately 15% to 20% of patients with NAION within 5 years. [3] It is not always devastating as visual acuity may remain only moderately impaired. Furthermore, most cases of NAION involve the loss of a hemifield (either the upper or lower half of the visual field, but not both). A few cases of NAION involve near-total loss of vision.[ citation needed ]

Risk factors

The mechanism of injury for NAION used to be quite controversial. However, experts in the field have come to a consensus that most cases involve two main risk factors. The first is a predisposition in the form of a type of optic disc shape. The optic disc is where the axons from the retinal ganglion cells collect into the optic nerve. The optic nerve is the bundle of axons that carry the visual signals from the eye to the brain. This optic nerve must penetrate through the wall of the eye, and the hole to accommodate this is usually 20-30% larger than the nerve diameter. In some patients the optic nerve is nearly as large as the opening in the back of the eye, and the optic disc appears "crowded" when seen by ophthalmoscopy. A crowded disc is also referred to as a "disc at risk". While a risk factor, the vast majority of individuals with crowded discs do not experience NAION.[ citation needed ]

The second major risk factor involves more general cardiovascular risk factors. The most common are diabetes, hypertension and high cholesterol levels. While these factors predispose a patient to develop NAION, the most common precipitating factor is marked fall of blood pressure during sleep (nocturnal arterial hypotension)- that is why at least 75% of the patients first discover visual loss first on waking from sleep. When other risk factors for NAION are present, taking blood pressure medications at night should be avoided as this can exacerbate nighttime hypotension. Beta blockers in particular are associated with increased incidence of NAION. [4] These vascular risk factors lead to ischemia (poor blood supply) to a portion of the optic disc. The disc then swells, and in a crowded optic disc, this leads to compression and more ischemia.[ citation needed ]

Since both eyes tend to have a similar shape, the optometrist or ophthalmologist will look at the good eye to assess the anatomical predisposition. The unaffected eye has a 14.7% risk of NAION within five years. [5]

A number of uncontrolled single case or small number of patient reports have associated NAION with use of oral erectile dysfunction drugs. [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11]

Diagnosis

Since arteritic AION is similar in presentation to non-arteritic AION, patients over the age of 50 diagnosed with NAION must be evaluated to exclude AAION (symptoms: painful jaw muscle spasms, scalp tenderness, unintentional weight loss, fatigue, myalgias and loss of appetite); NAION patients over the age of 75 should always be tested.[ citation needed ]

The distinction between AAION and non-arteritic AION was made to highlight the different etiologies of anterior ischemic optic neuropathy. AAION is due to temporal arteritis (also called giant-cell arteritis), an inflammatory disease of medium-sized blood vessels (Chapel-Hill-Conference) that occurs especially with advancing age. In contrast, NAION results from the coincidence of cardiovascular risk factors in a patient with "crowded" optic discs. Non-arteritic AION is more common than AAION and usually occurs in slightly younger persons. While only a few cases of NAION result in near total loss of vision, most cases of AAION result in nearly complete vision loss.[ citation needed ]

Nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy is an isolated white-matter stroke of the optic nerve (ON). NAION is the most common cause of sudden optic nerve-related vision loss, affecting more than 10,000 Americans every year, often bilaterally. No clinically effective treatments exist, largely because little is known about its pathophysiology, and there are few histopathological studies of the acute condition. [12]

An exhaustive review article published in March 2009 described the latest information on arteritic and non-arteritic ischemic optic neuropathy, both anterior (A-AION and NA-AION) and posterior (A-PION, NA-PION, and surgical). [13]

Treatment

Once NAION happens, it was thought that there was no accepted treatment to reverse the damage. However, a recent uncontrolled retrospective large study has shown that if patients are treated with large doses of corticosteroid therapy during the early stages of NAION, in eyes with initial visual acuity of 20/70 or worse, seen within 2 weeks of onset, there was visual acuity improvement in 70% in the treated group compared to 41% in the untreated group (odds ratio of improvement: 3.39; 95% CI:1.62, 7.11; p < 0.001). [14] That study and a natural history study on NAION (Ophthalmology 2008;115: 298–305.) showed that visual acuity can improve up to 6 months and not after that. To minimize the risk of further visual loss in the fellow eye or the same eye, it is essential to reduce the risk factors. Common sense dictates trying to control the cardiovascular risk factors for many reasons, including protection from this happening to the second eye. Sudden vision loss should lead to an ophthalmological consultation. If NAION is suspected, then ideally a neuro-ophthalmologist's consultation should be obtained.[ citation needed ]

A recent Cochrane Review sought to determine the extent of safety and efficacy of optic nerve decompression surgery for NAION, compared to other treatments, or no treatment. [15] The one study included in the review found no improvements in visual acuity among patients who underwent surgery for NAION, and adverse events (pain, double vision) experienced by participants who underwent surgery. [15]

There is much research currently underway looking at ways to protect the nerve (neuroprotection) or even regenerate new fibers within the optic nerve. [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] So far there is no evidence in human studies that the so-called neuroprotectors have any beneficial effect in NAION. However, there is a new current clinical trial for the treatment of NAION in the United States with plans to include sites in India, Israel, Germany and Australia (see NORDICclinicaltrials.com [ permanent dead link ] and https://clinicaltrials.gov/). This trial will test the use of a synthetic siRNA that blocks caspase 2, an important enzyme in the apoptosis cycle. [21] In addition to such research, patents have been applied for by Pfizer, The University of Southern California, Otsuka Pharmaceutical and other individual inventors for innovations related to the treatment of anterior ischemic optic neuropathy. [22] [ unreliable source? ]

In recent years, pentoxifylline has emerged as a potential treatment option for NAION and other diseases involving ocular ischemia. Pentoxifylline has been shown to reduce erythrocyte rigidity, resulting in decreased blood viscosity and increased flow velocity. [23] Animal studies have demonstrated that pentoxifylline can inhibit TNF and, in turn, prevent retinal ganglion cell death and axonal degeneration associated with optic neuropathy in a dose-dependent manner. [24] [25] A Cochrane Review on treatments for acute CRAO included one randomized clinical trial involving pentoxifylline, which showed that pentoxifylline use (three 600 mg tablets daily) was associated with improved retinal perfusion, but it was unclear if significant improvements in visual acuity were also observed. [26] [27] Similar findings have been shown using Doppler OCT imaging in patients with NAION, [28] though a study in India reported visual improvement compared to placebo in patients with optic neuropathy. [29] Of note, TNF may be important in the immune response to certain nematode parasitic infections, and so pentoxifylline should be used with caution for those living in areas of parasite infestation; however, it is probably safe to use in otherwise healthy individuals living in urban, temperate environments. Overall, routine use of pentoxifylline in ischemic optic neuropathies was not supported given limited evidence, but the absence of major adverse effects and the absence of other proven therapies suggest a possible therapeutic role for pentoxifylline.

Incidence

It is estimated that the incidence of AION in the US is about 8,000 persons per year. [30]

Related Research Articles

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Optic neuritis describes any condition that causes inflammation of the optic nerve; it may be associated with demyelinating diseases, or infectious or inflammatory processes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Optic nerve</span> Second cranial nerve, which connects the eyes to the brain

In neuroanatomy, the optic nerve, also known as the second cranial nerve, cranial nerve II, or simply CN II, is a paired cranial nerve that transmits visual information from the retina to the brain. In humans, the optic nerve is derived from optic stalks during the seventh week of development and is composed of retinal ganglion cell axons and glial cells; it extends from the optic disc to the optic chiasma and continues as the optic tract to the lateral geniculate nucleus, pretectal nuclei, and superior colliculus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Papilledema</span> Eye disorder

Papilledema or papilloedema is optic disc swelling that is caused by increased intracranial pressure due to any cause. The swelling is usually bilateral and can occur over a period of hours to weeks. Unilateral presentation is extremely rare.

The National Eye Institute (NEI) is part of the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH), an agency of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The mission of NEI is "to eliminate vision loss and improve quality of life through vision research." NEI consists of two major branches for research: an extramural branch that funds studies outside NIH and an intramural branch that funds research on the NIH campus in Bethesda, Maryland. Most of the NEI budget funds extramural research.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy</span> Mitochondrially inherited degeneration of retinal cells in human

Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) is a mitochondrially inherited degeneration of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and their axons that leads to an acute or subacute loss of central vision; it predominantly affects young adult males. LHON is transmitted only through the mother, as it is primarily due to mutations in the mitochondrial genome, and only the egg contributes mitochondria to the embryo. Men cannot pass on the disease to their offspring. LHON is usually due to one of three pathogenic mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) point mutations. These mutations are at nucleotide positions 11778 G to A, 3460 G to A and 14484 T to C, respectively in the ND4, ND1 and ND6 subunit genes of complex I of the oxidative phosphorylation chain in mitochondria.

Posterior ischemic optic neuropathy (PION) is a medical condition characterized by damage to the retrobulbar portion of the optic nerve due to inadequate blood flow (ischemia) to the optic nerve. Despite the term posterior, this form of damage to the eye's optic nerve due to poor blood flow also includes cases where the cause of inadequate blood flow to the nerve is anterior, as the condition describes a particular mechanism of visual loss as much as the location of damage in the optic nerve. In contrast, anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (AION) is distinguished from PION by the fact that AION occurs spontaneously and on one side in affected individuals with predisposing anatomic or cardiovascular risk factors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ischemic optic neuropathy</span> Medical condition

Ischemic optic neuropathy (ION) is the loss of structure and function of a portion of the optic nerve due to obstruction of blood flow to the nerve. Ischemic forms of optic neuropathy are typically classified as either anterior ischemic optic neuropathy or posterior ischemic optic neuropathy according to the part of the optic nerve that is affected. People affected will often complain of a loss of visual acuity and a visual field, the latter of which is usually in the superior or inferior field.

Arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy is the cause of vision loss that occurs in temporal arteritis. Temporal arteritis is an inflammatory disease of medium-sized blood vessels that happens especially with advancing age. AAION occurs in about 15-20 percent of patients with temporal arteritis. Damage to the blood vessels supplying the optic nerves leads to insufficient blood supply (ischemia) to the nerve and subsequent optic nerve fiber death. Most cases of AAION result in nearly complete vision loss first to one eye. If the temporal arteritis is left untreated, the fellow eye will likely suffer vision loss as well within 1–2 weeks. Arteritic AION falls under the general category of anterior ischemic optic neuropathy, which also includes non-arteritic AION. AION is considered an eye emergency, immediate treatment is essential to rescue remaining vision.

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Optic neuropathy is damage to the optic nerve from any cause. The optic nerve is a bundle of millions of fibers in the retina that sends visual signals to the brain.

Ocular ischemic syndrome is the constellation of ocular signs and symptoms secondary to severe, chronic arterial hypoperfusion to the eye. Amaurosis fugax is a form of acute vision loss caused by reduced blood flow to the eye; it may be a warning sign of an impending stroke, as both stroke and retinal artery occlusion can be caused by thromboembolism due to atherosclerosis elsewhere in the body. Consequently, those with transient blurring of vision are advised to urgently seek medical attention for a thorough evaluation of the carotid artery. Anterior segment ischemic syndrome is a similar ischemic condition of anterior segment usually seen in post-surgical cases. Retinal artery occlusion leads to rapid death of retinal cells, thereby resulting in severe loss of vision.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Optic disc drusen</span> Medical condition

Optic disc drusen (ODD) are globules of mucoproteins and mucopolysaccharides that progressively calcify in the optic disc. They are thought to be the remnants of the axonal transport system of degenerated retinal ganglion cells. ODD have also been referred to as congenitally elevated or anomalous discs, pseudopapilledema, pseudoneuritis, buried disc drusen, and disc hyaline bodies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Optic pit</span> Medical condition

Optic pit, optic nerve pit, or optic disc pit (ODP) is rare a congenital excavation (or regional depression) of the optic disc (also optic nerve head), resulting from a malformation during development of the eye. The incidence of ODP is 1 in 10,000 people with no predilection for either gender. There is currently no known risk factors for their development. Optic pits are important because they are associated with posterior vitreous detachments (PVD) and even serous retinal detachments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Central retinal vein occlusion</span> Medical condition

Central retinal vein occlusion, also CRVO, is when the central retinal vein becomes occluded, usually through thrombosis. The central retinal vein is the venous equivalent of the central retinal artery and both may become occluded. Since the central retinal artery and vein are the sole source of blood supply and drainage for the retina, such occlusion can lead to severe damage to the retina and blindness, due to ischemia and edema (swelling).

Autoimmune optic neuropathy (AON), sometimes called autoimmune optic neuritis, may be a forme fruste of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) associated optic neuropathy. AON is more than the presence of any optic neuritis in a patient with an autoimmune process, as it describes a relatively specific clinical syndrome. AON is characterized by chronically progressive or recurrent vision loss associated with serological evidence of autoimmunity. Specifically, this term has been suggested for cases of optic neuritis with serological evidence of vasculitis by positive ANA, despite the lack of meeting criteria for SLE. The clinical manifestations include progressive vision loss that tends to be steroid-responsive and steroid dependent.

Mitochondrial optic neuropathies are a heterogenous group of disorders that present with visual disturbances resultant from mitochondrial dysfunction within the anatomy of the Retinal Ganglion Cells (RGC), optic nerve, optic chiasm, and optic tract. These disturbances are multifactorial, their aetiology consisting of metabolic and/or structural damage as a consequence of genetic mutations, environmental stressors, or both. The three most common neuro-ophthalmic abnormalities seen in mitochondrial disorders are bilateral optic neuropathy, ophthalmoplegia with ptosis, and pigmentary retinopathy.

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Diabetic papillopathy is an ocular complication of diabetes mellitus characterized by optic disc swelling and edema of optic nerve head. The condition may affect both type 1 and type 2 diabetic patients.

Non-arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (NAION) is a medical condition characterized by loss of vision caused by damage to the optic nerve as a result of ischemia, or insufficient blood supply. The key symptom of NAION is optic disc swelling, which typically resolves within 2 months, but often leads to optic atrophy. The likelihood of vision improvement after developing this condition is low.

References

  1. ↑ Saxena, Rohit; Singh, Digvijay; Sharma, Medha; James, Mathew; Sharma, Pradeep; Menon, Vimla (October 2018). "Steroids versus No Steroids in Nonarteritic Anterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy". Ophthalmology. 125 (10): 1623–1627. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2018.03.032 . PMID   29705054. S2CID   23203785.
  2. ↑ Atkins, EJ; Bruce, BB; Newman, NJ; Biousse, V (2010). "Treatment of nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy". Survey of Ophthalmology. 55 (1): 47–63. doi:10.1016/j.survophthal.2009.06.008. PMC   3721361 . PMID   20006051.
  3. ↑ IONDT(The Ischemic Optic Neuropathy Decompression Trial) Study
  4. ↑ Liu, Bing; Yu, Ying; Liu, Wen; Deng, Tuo; Xiang, Daoman (2021). "Risk Factors for Non-arteritic Anterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy: A Large Scale Meta-Analysis". Frontiers in Medicine. 8: 618353. doi: 10.3389/fmed.2021.618353 . PMC   8520961 . PMID   34671609.
  5. ↑ Newman NJ, Scherer R, Langenberg P, et al. (September 2002). "The fellow eye in NAION: report from the ischemic optic neuropathy decompression trial follow-up study". American Journal of Ophthalmology. 134 (3): 317–28. doi:10.1016/S0002-9394(02)01639-2. PMID   12208242.
  6. ↑ Pomeranz HD, Bhavsar AR (March 2005). "Nonarteritic ischemic optic neuropathy developing soon after use of sildenafil (viagra): a report of seven new cases". Journal of Neuro-Ophthalmology. 25 (1): 9–13. doi: 10.1097/00041327-200503000-00003 . PMID   15756125.
  7. ↑ Egan R, Pomeranz H (February 2000). "Sildenafil (Viagra) associated anterior ischemic optic neuropathy". Archives of Ophthalmology. 118 (2): 291–2. PMID   10676804.
  8. ↑ Pomeranz HD, Smith KH, Hart WM, Egan RA (March 2002). "Sildenafil-associated nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy". Ophthalmology. 109 (3): 584–7. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.616.3702 . doi:10.1016/S0161-6420(01)00976-9. PMID   11874765.
  9. ↑ Cunningham AV, Smith KH (March 2001). "Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy associated with viagra". Journal of Neuro-Ophthalmology. 21 (1): 22–5. doi: 10.1097/00041327-200103000-00006 . PMID   11315976.
  10. ↑ Boshier A, Pambakian N, Shakir SA (September 2002). "A case of nonarteritic ischemic optic neuropathy (NAION) in a male patient taking sildenafil". International Journal of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 40 (9): 422–3. doi:10.5414/cpp40422. PMID   12358159.
  11. ↑ Akash R, Hrishikesh D, Amith P, Sabah S (August 2005). "Case report: association of combined nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (NAION) and obstruction of cilioretinal artery with overdose of Viagra". Journal of Ocular Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 21 (4): 315–7. doi:10.1089/jop.2005.21.315. PMID   16117695.
  12. ↑ Tesser RA, Niendorf ER, Levin LA (October 2003). "The morphology of an infarct in nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy". Ophthalmology. 110 (10): 2031–5. doi:10.1016/S0161-6420(03)00804-2. PMID   14522783.
  13. ↑ Hayreh SS (March 1999). "Retinal and optic nerve head ischemic disorders and atherosclerosis: role of serotonin". Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 18 (2): 191–221. doi:10.1016/S1350-9462(98)00016-0. PMID   9932283. S2CID   24248680.
  14. ↑ Hayreh SS, Zimmerman MB (July 2008). "Non-arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy: role of systemic corticosteroid therapy". Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology. 246 (7): 1029–46. doi:10.1007/s00417-008-0805-8. PMC   2712323 . PMID   18404273.
  15. 1 2 Dickersin K, Li T (2015). "Surgery for nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy". Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 3 (3): CD001538. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001538.pub4. PMC   4439207 . PMID   25763979.
  16. ↑ Bernstein SL, Guo Y, Kelman SE, Flower RW, Johnson MA (October 2003). "Functional and cellular responses in a novel rodent model of anterior ischemic optic neuropathy". Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 44 (10): 4153–62. doi: 10.1167/iovs.03-0274 . PMID   14507856.
  17. ↑ Bernstein SL, Guo Y, Slater BJ, Puche A, Kelman SE (May 2007). "Neuron stress and loss following rodent anterior ischemic optic neuropathy in double-reporter transgenic mice". Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 48 (5): 2304–10. doi: 10.1167/iovs.06-0486 . PMID   17460295.
  18. ↑ Bernstein SL, Koo JH, Slater BJ, Guo Y, Margolis FL (2006). "Analysis of optic nerve stroke by retinal Bex expression". Molecular Vision. 12: 147–55. PMID   16541015.
  19. ↑ Goldenberg-Cohen N, Guo Y, Margolis F, Cohen Y, Miller NR, Bernstein SL (August 2005). "Oligodendrocyte dysfunction after induction of experimental anterior optic nerve ischemia". Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 46 (8): 2716–25. doi: 10.1167/iovs.04-0547 . PMID   16043843.
  20. ↑ Bernstein SL, Mehrabyan Z, Guo Y, Moianie N (2007). "Estrogen is not neuroprotective in a rodent model of optic nerve stroke". Molecular Vision. 13: 1920–5. PMC   2185481 . PMID   17982415.
  21. ↑ Ahmed, Z.; Kalinski, H.; Berry, M.; Almasieh, M.; Ashush, H.; Slager, N.; Brafman, A.; Spivak, I.; Prasad, N. (2011-06-16). "Ocular neuroprotection by siRNA targeting caspase-2". Cell Death & Disease. 2 (6): e173. doi:10.1038/cddis.2011.54. PMC   3168996 . PMID   21677688.
  22. ↑ Patents related to treatment of anterior ischemic optic neuropathy Archived 2015-09-24 at the Wayback Machine
  23. ↑ Seiffge D, Kiesewetter H (1981-11-01). "Effect of pentoxifylline on single red cell deformability". Klinische Wochenschrift. 59 (22): 1271–2. doi:10.1007/bf01747760. PMID   7311396.
  24. ↑ Petrovich M, Hsu H, Gu X, Dugal P, Heller K, Sadun A (1997-10-01). "Pentoxifylline suppression of TNF-α mediated axonal degeneration in the rabbit optic nerve". Neurological research. 19 (5): 551–4. doi:10.1080/01616412.1997.11740856.
  25. ↑ Sadun AA (2000-01-01). "Optic neuropathies and retinal ganglion cell death". Neuro-Ophthalmology. 24 (3): 387–94. doi:10.1076/noph.24.3.387.7144.
  26. ↑ Lin JC, Song S, Ng SM, Scott IU, Greenberg PB (2023-01-30). "Interventions for acute non-arteritic central retinal artery occlusion". Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 1 (1): CD001989. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001989.pub3. PMC   9885744 . PMID   36715340.
  27. ↑ Incandela L, Cesarone MR, Belcaro G, Steigerwalt R, De Sanctis MT, Nicolaides AN, Griffin M, Geroulakos G, Ramaswami G (Jan 2002). "Treatment of vascular retinal disease with pentoxifylline: a controlled, randomized trial". Angiology. 53 (Suppl 1): S31-4. PMID   11865833.
  28. ↑ Gale J, Chu ER, Frousiakis SE, Srinivas S, Karanjia R, Tan O, Huang D, Sadda SR, Sadun AA (2014-04-30). "Effects of Pentoxifylline on Blood Flow in Patients with Non-Arteritic Ischemic Optic Neuropathy". Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 55 (13): 6232.
  29. ↑ Khan P, Khan L, Awasthi U, Khan A, Siddique Z, Chand R (2013-05-20). "Pentoxifylline: a therapeutic remedy for optic neuropathies". J Evol Med Dent Sci. 2: 3516–22.
  30. ↑ Hattenhauer MG, Leavitt JA, Hodge DO, Grill R, Gray DT (January 1997). "Incidence of nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy". American Journal of Ophthalmology. 123 (1): 103–7. doi:10.1016/s0002-9394(14)70999-7. PMID   9186104.

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