Aphis spiraecola

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Aphis spiraecola
Aphis spiraecola.3.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Sternorrhyncha
Family: Aphididae
Genus: Aphis
Species:
A. spiraecola
Binomial name
Aphis spiraecola
Patch, 1914

Aphis spiraecola is a species of aphid described in 1914 by Edith Marion Patch. [1] Its common names include green citrus aphid, [2] Spirea aphid, [3] and apple aphid. [4] It is distributed worldwide, and is most abundant in the United States. [5] It has a diploid chromosome number of 2n=8. [6]

Contents

Discovery

This species was first discovered by Edith Marion Patch in 1914. [1] Patch discovered that A. pomi would feed and develop on Spiraea and A. spiraecola would feed and develop on Malus which confirmed that aphids were a highly variable species. [7] [8] Patch’s colonies on apple were decimated by a fungus so all transfer attempts to secondary hosts, which would have demonstrated the limited host range of A. pomi, were made using A. spiraecola from Spiraea instead. Later she suggested using the names A. pomi and A. spiraecola on the basis of the plants on which they were found [7] [8] [9] thus leading to the names each species is known by today. Another species, A. citricola was described by van der Groot in 1912 while doing a study in Chile. This aphid became a synonym for another citrus aphid - Toxoptera citricida . In 1975, Hille Ris Lambers demonstrated that T. citricida referred to A. spiraecola, thus synonymizing T. citricola with A. spiraecola. [10]

Anatomy

This species of aphid can range from a bright greenish-yellow color to an apple green, hence their common name. They have a dark-brown head and thorax, and a yellowish-green abdomen with dusky lateral patches on each segment with a membranous and pale dorsum. [6] They are often confused with A. pomi (apple aphid) due to overlapping host plants that they aggregate to; however, they are also morphologically different as A. pomi  have marginal tubercles on their lower abdomen while A. spiraecola do not. [7]

Reproduction

A. spiraecola is an holocyclic species, meaning that they undergo sexual reproduction during part of its life cycle and reproduces entirely parthenogenetically over most of its geographical range. [10] [6] Where it is holocyclic and produces sexual morphs, the primary hosts are Spiraea or Citrus. [10] [11]

Diet

Aphis spiraecola is found on over 65 plant genera including economically important crops like citrus, Theobroma cacao , papaya anona[ clarification needed ], Malus spp., Pirus[ clarification needed ] spp., Prunus spp. etc. Except the Lavandula spp. and Paliurus spina-christi , all the host plants are evergreen and A. spiraecola is found on these two host plants mostly during the plants flowering time. [12] This species is polyphagous, meaning it can feed on a variety of different foods allowing it to survive in a plethora of environments. They typically feed on young buds/flowers, shoots and leaves of host plants. [6] If introduced to a new place, the odds of it surviving and reproducing are very good, barring cold climates as mentioned previously. Primary (winter) hosts are Spiraea spp. and Citrus spp. with numerous secondary host plants, in well over 20 families, particularly in the Caprifoliaceae, Compositae, Rosaceae, Rubiaceae and Rutaceae families. This aphid has been found to have a preference for woody plants of a shrubby growth habit with citrus and apples being the most important/affected crop hosts. [6]

Distribution

A. spiraecola is globally distributed among temperate and tropical regions, including Asia, Africa, North America, Europe, and Oceania regions with the exception of cold regions. This species is thought to have originated in the Far East, [13] dating back to at least 1907 in North America, Australia in 1926, New Zealand in 1931, the Mediterranean in 1939 [14] (other sources say only in the early 1990s), [13] Africa in 196, Israel in 1970, [1] [10] Germany in 2000, [13] Hungary in 2004, [13] Bulgaria and Serbia in 2007, [13] the Baltic region in 2015, [13] Kosovo in 2018 (Llugaxhi on 23 July), [13] Slovakia in 2018 (Tvrdošovce on 2 May), [13] the Czech Republic in 2019 (Bílé Podolí on 21 June, [13] the United Kingdom in 2018 (Ash (near Canterbury) England on 13 July, after previous detections elsewhere in the UK in 1979 and 1996 did not go any further), [13] and Denmark in 2019 (in the Pometum of the Taastrup campus of the University of Copenhagen on 20 July). [13] Today, A. spiraecola is found all over the world, whether they are native or introduced to the area, and have been found to be invasive almost everywhere they reside. [14] There are many possibilities and risks of introducing this species to new geographic areas. One of which is the movement of fruits or ornamental plants which can transport this organism to a new geographic area, and since it has the ability to feed on almost any food source, it can easily survive and reproduce in almost any environment, thus introducing them to a new area where they can survive. [6] [10]

Environmental impact

A. spiraecola is a pest of citrus, apples and ornamentals. [8] [12] They also transmit a large portion of plant viruses which can cause entire crop yields to be at risk of being affected. Therefore A. spiraecola poses a significant negative impact on crop production and possibly economic loss, however they don't seem to impact much else in terms of human/animal health, aquaculture, native fauna/flora, tourism, trade, transportation, or the environment/biodiversity. [15] [16]

Prevention and control

Despite being native in certain terrestrial regions, this species can be severely detrimental to crops in a variety of regions, making them invasive virtually everywhere they inhabit. Many predators prey on A. spiraecola colonies but this doesn't result in ample population control. [6] [10] Insecticides are recommended for pest control on citrus crop hosts affected by A. spiraecola. Several studies tested a range of insecticides in citrus groves, [17] which compared treatments in apple orchards. [18] [19] A study also described the effect of different insecticide treatments on cucurbits in South America. [20] Examples of suitable insecticide treatment for A. spiraecola are ethion, parathion-ethyl, dimethoate, fenitrothion, and dimefox via stem bandages. [18] [19] The favored insecticide is imidacloprid for orchard control, as shown in an experiment comparing efficacy of a plant growth regulator on apple/pear trees in Florida. [21]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aphid</span> Superfamily of insects

Aphids are small sap-sucking insects and members of the superfamily Aphidoidea. Common names include greenfly and blackfly, although individuals within a species can vary widely in color. The group includes the fluffy white woolly aphids. A typical life cycle involves flightless females giving live birth to female nymphs—who may also be already pregnant, an adaptation scientists call telescoping generations—without the involvement of males. Maturing rapidly, females breed profusely so that the number of these insects multiplies quickly. Winged females may develop later in the season, allowing the insects to colonize new plants. In temperate regions, a phase of sexual reproduction occurs in the autumn, with the insects often overwintering as eggs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aphididae</span> Family of true bugs

The Aphididae are a very large insect family in the aphid superfamily (Aphidoidea), of the order Hemiptera. These insects suck the sap from plant leaves. Several thousand species are placed in this family, many of which are considered plant/crop pests. They are the family of insects containing most plant virus vectors with the green peach aphid being one of the most prevalent and indiscriminate carriers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Russian wheat aphid</span> Species of true bug

The Russian wheat aphid is an aphid that can cause significant losses in cereal crops. The species was introduced to the United States in 1986 and is considered an invasive species there. This aphid is pale green and up to 2 mm long. Cornicles are very short, rounded, and appear to be lacking. There is an appendage above the cauda giving the aphid the appearance of having two tails. The saliva of this aphid is toxic to the plant and causes whitish striping on cereal leaves. Feeding by this aphid will also cause the flag leaf to turn white and curl around the head causing incomplete head emergence. Its host plants are cereal grain crops including wheat and barley and to a lesser extent, wild grasses such as wheatgrasses, brome-grasses, ryegrasses and anything in the grass family.

Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) is a viral species of the genus Closterovirus that causes the most economically damaging disease to its namesake plant genus, Citrus. The disease has led to the death of millions of Citrus trees all over the world and has rendered millions of others useless for production. Farmers in Brazil and other South American countries gave it the name "tristeza", meaning sadness in Portuguese and Spanish, referring to the devastation produced by the disease in the 1930s. The virus is transmitted most efficiently by the brown citrus aphid.

<i>Toxoptera citricida</i> Species of true bug

Toxoptera citricida is a species of aphid known by the common names brown citrus aphid, black citrus aphid, and oriental citrus aphid. It is a pest of citrus and vector for the pathogenic plant virus citrus tristeza virus. The aphid spread the virus through citrus groves in Brazil and Venezuela in the 1970s, leading to the near destruction of the citrus industry there. This aphid was first discovered in Florida in 1995.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soybean aphid</span> Species of true bug

The soybean aphid is an insect pest of soybean that is exotic to North America. The soybean aphid is native to Asia. It has been described as a common pest of soybeans in China and as an occasional pest of soybeans in Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand. The soybean aphid was first documented in North America in Wisconsin in July 2000. Ragsdale et al. (2004) noted that the soybean aphid probably arrived in North America earlier than 2000, but remained undetected for a period of time. Venette and Ragsdale (2004) suggested that Japan probably served as the point of origin for the soybean aphid's North American invasion. By 2003, the soybean aphid had been documented in Delaware, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. Together, these states accounted for 89% of the 63,600,000 acres (257,000 km2) of soybean planted in the United States in 2007.

<i>Aphis</i> Genus of true bugs

Aphis is a genus of insects in the family Aphididae containing at least 600 species of aphids. It includes many notorious agricultural pests, such as the soybean aphid Aphis glycines. Many species of Aphis, such as A. coreopsidis and A. fabae, are myrmecophiles, forming close associations with ants.

<i>Coccinella transversalis</i> Species of beetle

Coccinella transversalis, commonly known as the transverse ladybird or transverse lady beetle is a species of ladybird beetle found from India across southern and southeastern Asia to Malesia and Australia. It is not to be confused with Coccinella transversoguttata, a widespread species in Europe and North America also known as the transverse ladybird. The alternative vernacular of small transverse ladybird may be used for C. transversalis in instances where these two species are discussed together.

<i>Myzus persicae</i> Aphid of peach, potato, other crops

Myzus persicae, known as the green peach aphid, greenfly, or the peach-potato aphid, is a small green aphid belonging to the order Hemiptera. It is the most significant aphid pest of peach trees, causing decreased growth, shrivelling of the leaves and the death of various tissues. It also acts as a vector for the transport of plant viruses such as cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), potato virus Y (PVY) and tobacco etch virus (TEV). Potato virus Y and potato leafroll virus can be passed to members of the nightshade/potato family (Solanaceae), and various mosaic viruses to many other food crops.

<i>Aphis gossypii</i> Species of insect

Aphis gossypii is a tiny insect, an aphid ("greenfly") in the superfamily Aphidoidea in the order Hemiptera. It is a true bug and sucks sap from plants. It is a widely distributed pest of a variety of agricultural crops in the families Cucurbitaceae, Rutaceae and Malvaceae. Common names include cotton aphid, melon aphid and melon and cotton aphid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black bean aphid</span> Species of true bug

The black bean aphid is a small black insect in the genus Aphis, with a broad, soft body, a member of the order Hemiptera. Other common names include blackfly, bean aphid, and beet leaf aphid. In the warmer months of the year, it is found in large numbers on the undersides of leaves and on the growing tips of host plants, including various agricultural crops and many wild and ornamental plants. Both winged and wingless forms exist, and at this time of year, they are all females. They suck sap from stems and leaves and cause distortion of the shoots, stunted plants, reduced yield, and spoiled crops. This aphid also acts as a vector for viruses that cause plant disease, and the honeydew it secretes may encourage the growth of sooty mould. It breeds profusely by live birth, but its numbers are kept in check, especially in the later part of the summer, by various predatory and parasitic insects. Ants feed on the honeydew it produces, and take active steps to remove predators. It is a widely distributed pest of agricultural crops and can be controlled by chemical or biological means. In the autumn, winged forms move to different host plants, where both males and females are produced. These mate and the females lay eggs which overwinter.

<i>Macrosiphum euphorbiae</i> Species of true bug

Macrosiphum euphorbiae, the potato aphid, is a sap-sucking pest insect in the family Aphididae. It infests potatoes and a number of other commercially important crops.

Pemphigus betae, also known as the sugarbeet root aphid, is a species of gall-forming aphid that forms galls specifically on the commonly found narrowleaf cottonwood, Populus angustifolia. Sugarbeet root aphids have been found in North America and Europe. They infect sugarbeets, but also other plants like tablebeets and Swiss chard. Their size has been likened to that of a pinhead, and are pale white-yellow in color. Sugarbeet root aphids have soft bodies that are bulbous in shape, with mandibular parts that can pierce and suck and paired abdominal tubes that point backwards, and come in both winged and wingless forms. They are known for their consequential effects on agriculture due to infestation of plants, and efforts to control the pests have proved to be difficult.

<i>Aphis craccivora</i> Species of true bug

Aphis craccivora, variously known as the cowpea aphid, groundnut aphid or black legume aphid, is a true bug in the family Aphididae. Originally of probable Palearctic origin, it is now an invasive species of cosmopolitan distribution.

<i>Aphis nerii</i> Species of true bug

Aphis nerii is an aphid of the family Aphididae. Its common names include oleander aphid, milkweed aphid, sweet pepper aphid, and nerium aphid.

<i>Aphis pomi</i> Species of true bug

Aphis pomi, commonly known as the apple aphid, or the green apple aphid, is a true bug in the family Aphididae. It is found on young growth of apple trees and on other members of the rose family where it feeds by sucking sap. Reproduction is mainly by parthenogenesis, in which unmated females give birth to live young.

<i>Rhopalosiphum padi</i> Species of true bug

Bird cherry-oat aphid is an aphid in the superfamily Aphidoidea in the order Hemiptera. It is a true bug and sucks sap from plants. It is considered a major pest in cereal crops, especially in temperate regions, as well as other hosts in parts of Northern Europe. It is the principal vector of many viruses in economically important field crops.

<i>Rhopalosiphum rufiabdominale</i> Species of aphid

Rhopalosiphum rufiabdominale, the rice root aphid or red rice root aphid, is a sap-sucking insect pest with a wide host range and a global distribution. As a member of the superfamily Aphidoidea, it is one of 16 species of the genus Rhopalosiphum. Adults and nymphs are soft-bodied and usually dark green with brown, red, or yellow tones. Like all aphids, reproduction is sexual and asexual, depending on the environmental conditions and host plant. Rice root aphids cause injury to external plant parts, namely the roots or stem, by feeding on plant sap and vector several important plant viruses. The hosts of this pest extend across multiple plant families with most belonging to Rosaceae, Poaceae, and Solanaceae. R. rufiabdominale is universally associated with Prunus species but also infests various field crops, greenhouse vegetables, cannabis, and other ornamental plants. While this aphid originates from east Asia, it spans nearly every continent. Dispersal is particularly widespread across the United States, India, and Australia, with crop damage documented in multiple instances, although economic losses are primarily associated with Japanese rice crops. Nonetheless, it remains a pest of serious concern due to its high mobility, discrete habitat, and adaptive plasticity, giving it the rightful reputation as a successful invader.

<i>Schizaphis graminum</i> Species of true bug

The greenbug, or wheat aphid, is an aphid in the superfamily Aphidoidea in the order Hemiptera. It is a true bug and feeds on the leaves of Gramineae (grass) family members.

<i>Tuberolachnus salignus</i> Species of true bug

Tuberolachnus salignus, or the giant willow aphid, is a species of aphid, in the genus Tuberolachnus. They are reputed to be the largest aphids, with a body length of up to 5.8mm. First described by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1790, it feeds on many species of willow, and has one known specific parasite, Pauesia salignae.

References

  1. 1 2 3 "Aphis spiraecola (Patch, 1914)". Global Biodiversity Information Facility . Retrieved 22 July 2014.
  2. ↑ "Aphis (Aphis) spiraecola Patch, 1914 (Green Citrus Aphid)". National Biodiversity Network. 2013. Retrieved 22 July 2014.
  3. ↑ "MSU IPM Program - Spirea aphid". MSU IPM Program. Michigan State University. 14 May 2014. Retrieved 22 July 2014.
  4. ↑ "Aphis spiraecola (Patch, 1914) - Apple Aphid". Atlas of Living Australia. Archived from the original on 28 July 2014. Retrieved 22 July 2014.
  5. ↑ Tang, Y. Q.; Yokomi, R. K. (1996-06-01). "Effect of Parasitism by Aphelinus spiraecolae (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) on Development and Reproduction of Spirea Aphid (Homoptera: Aphididae)". Environmental Entomology. 25 (3): 703–707. doi:10.1093/ee/25.3.703. ISSN   1938-2936.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Blackman, RL; Eastop, VF (2000-10-02). "Aphids on the World's Crops. An Information and Identification Guide". Australian Journal of Entomology. 39 (4): 354–355. doi:10.1046/j.1440-6055.2000.0188b.x. ISSN   1326-6756.
  7. 1 2 3 Halbert, Susan E; Voegtlin, David J (1992). "Morphological Differentiation Between Aphis spiraecola and Aphis pomi (Homoptera: Aphididae)". The Great Lakes Entomologist. 25 (1).
  8. 1 2 3 Patch, Edith M. (1923). The summer food plants of the green apple aphid. Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. OCLC   970408970.
  9. ↑ Patch, Edith M. (1929-08-01). "The Apple Aphid and the Citrus Aphid: Aphis Pomi Degeer and A. spiraecola Patch". Journal of Economic Entomology . 22 (4): 698–699. doi:10.1093/jee/22.4.698. ISSN   1938-291X.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Aphis spiraecoa (Spirae aphid)". CABI. November 2019.
  11. ↑ "Aphis spiraecola (Spirea aphid) identification, images, ecology, control". influentialpoints.com. Retrieved 2020-02-18.
  12. 1 2 Blackman, R. L. (1984). Aphids on the world's crops : an identification guide. Wiley. ISBN   0-471-90426-0. OCLC   1053979324.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Borbély, Csaba; György, Zsuzsanna; Jacobsen, Stine Kramer; Musa, Fadil; Ouředníčková, Jana; Sigsgaard, Lene; Skalský, Michal; Markó, Viktor (2020-12-03). "First records of the invasive aphid species, Aphis spiraecola, in Kosovo, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, the United Kingdom and Denmark". Plant Protection Science . Czech Academy of Agricultural Sciences. 57 (1): 70–74. doi: 10.17221/108/2020-pps . ISSN   1212-2580.
  14. 1 2 "Aphis spiraecola (Spirea aphid) Distribution". CABI. Distribution/Distribution Table. 2019.
  15. ↑ "Aphis spiraecola (Spirea aphid): Impact Summary". CABI. 2019.
  16. ↑ Gómez-Marco, F; Tena, A; Jaques, J; García, A (2016). "Early arrival of predators controls Aphis spiraecola colonies in citrus clementines". Journal of Pest Science . 89: 69–79. doi:10.1007/s10340-015-0668-9.
  17. ↑ Cho, Jum-Rae; Hong, K. J.; Yoo, J. K.; Bang, J. R.; Lee, J. O. (1997-02-01). "Comparative Toxicity of Selected Insecticides to Aphis citricola, Myzus malisuctus (Homoptera: Aphididae), and the Predator Harmonia axyridis (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)". Journal of Economic Entomology . 90 (1): 11–14. doi: 10.1093/jee/90.1.11 . ISSN   1938-291X.
  18. 1 2 "Aphis spiraecola (Spirea aphid) Prevention and Control". CABI. 2019.
  19. 1 2 Segeren, P.A. (1983). "Pest-control experiments on cucumber and gherkin in Suriname". De Surinaamse Landbouw. 31 (2): 65–69.
  20. ↑ Park, Y.H.; Lee, B.M.; Song, N.H.; Kim, Y.K.; Park, Y.S. (1993). "Development of mixed pesticide for mite and aphid control in apple tree". RDA Journal of Agricultural Science, Crop Protection. 35 (1): 446–451.
  21. ↑ Paulson, GS; Hull, LA; Biddinger, DJ (2005). "Effect of a plant growth regulator prohexadione-calcium on insect pests of apple and pear". Journal of Economic Entomology. 98 (2): 423–31. doi:10.1093/jee/98.2.423. PMID   15889734.
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