Aureoboletus mirabilis

Last updated

Contents

Aureoboletus mirabilis
Aureoboletus mirabilis (Murrill) Halling 681855.jpg
From H.J. Andrews Forest, Oregon
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Boletales
Family: Boletaceae
Genus: Aureoboletus
Species:
A. mirabilis
Binomial name
Aureoboletus mirabilis
(Murrill) Halling (2015)
Synonyms [1]

Ceriomyces mirabilisMurrill (1912)
Boletus mirabilis(Murrill) Murrill (1912)
Xerocomus mirabilis(Murrill) Singer (1940)
Boletellus mirabilis(Murrill) Singer (1945)
Heimioporus mirabilis(Murrill) E. Horak (2004)

Aureoboletus mirabilis
Information icon.svg
Pores icon.pngPores on hymenium
Convex cap icon.svg Cap is convex
Adnate gills icon2.svg Hymenium is adnate
Bare stipe icon.svg Stipe is bare
Transparent spore print icon.svg
 Spore print is olive-brown
Mycorrhizal fungus.svgEcology is mycorrhizal
Mycomorphbox Choice.pngEdibility is choice

Aureoboletus mirabilis, commonly known as the admirable bolete, the bragger's bolete, and the velvet top, is an edible species of fungus in the Boletaceae mushroom family. The fruit body has several characteristics with which it may be identified: a dark reddish-brown cap; yellow to greenish-yellow pores on the undersurface of the cap; and a reddish-brown stem with long narrow reticulations. Aureoboletus mirabilis is found in coniferous forests along the Pacific Coast of North America, and in Asia. Unusual for boletes, A. mirabilis sometimes appears to fruit on the wood or woody debris of Hemlock trees, suggesting a saprobic lifestyle. Despite the occasional appearances to the contrary, Aureoboletus mirabilis is mycorrhizal, and forms a close association with the tree's roots.

Taxonomy and phylogeny

William Murrill originally described Aureboletus mirabilis. William Alphonso Murrill.gif
William Murrill originally described Aureboletus mirabilis.

Aureoboletus mirabilis was first described by American mycologist William Alphonso Murrill in 1912 as Ceriomyces mirabilis, based on specimens found in Seattle, Washington. [2] In a subsequent publication that same year, he switched the genus to Boletus . [3] In 1940, fungal taxonomist Rolf Singer transferred the taxon to the genus Xerocomus ; [4] five years later he switched it to Boletellus . [5] However, many mycologists did not recognize the distinction between Boletus and Boletellus before molecular phylogenetics studies found them to be distinct genera. In 1966, American mycologist Harry Delbert Thiers wrote about the issue in his survey of California boletes:

The proper disposition of this species in the present taxonomic scheme of the boletes is somewhat debatable. ... The distinction between Boletus and Boletellus is not so clear-cut. The spores are typically smooth which, in conjunction with the divergent tube trama, dry to moist pileus and yellow tubes, seem to place it very convincingly in Boletus. However, the present disposition in Boletellus seems most satisfactory to me. The sporocarps have the stature and general appearance of other members of that genus such as Boletellus russellii and B. ananas (Curt.) Murr. These similarities include the disproportionately long stipe which is frequently shaggy-reticulate and constricted at the apex, and a comparatively small pileus. [6]

Nine years later, after further consideration, Thiers changed his mind:

In an earlier paper this species was considered to belong to the genus Boletellus because of its stature, general appearance, and because some workers had reported the spores as being obscurely punctate or roughened. Repeated examinations of California material have failed to reveal any roughened spores and since, in modern concepts Boletellus is restricted to species having such spores, it has been placed back in Boletus. [7]

The species has also been placed in genus Heimioporus , newly described in 2004 by Swiss mycologist Egon Horak. [1] [8] In 2015 it was transferred to the genus Aureoboletus based on DNA evidence. [9]

The specific epithet mirabilis means "admirable" or "marvelous". [10] Aureoboletus mirabilis is commonly known as the "admirable bolete", [11] the "bragger's bolete", [12] and the "velvet top". [13]

In a 2001 analysis of ribosomal DNA sequences for a number of taxa in the Boletales order, A. mirabilis was found to be most closely related to species such as Boletus edulis , Phylloporus rhodoxanthus , and Tylopilus felleus . Within the Boletales clade (a group of related species roughly equivalent to the Boletales order), these species were all in the so-called "boletoid radiation", a group of taxa that are thought to have diverged evolutionarily from a single boletoid ancestor. [14] However, more recent studies containing more taxa have found A. mirabilis to be most closely related to Aureoboletus species. [9]

Description

Boletellus mirabilis 28545 crop.jpg
Spores are produced in minute tubes, which appear on the underside of the cap as pores.
Boletus mirabilis 65808.jpg
Closeup of pore surface

The bulk of Aureoboletus mirabilis is typically hidden from sight, existing as masses of almost invisible fungal threads called mycelium, which form the active feeding and growing structures of the fungus. The mushrooms, or fruit bodies are created solely for the production of spores by which the fungus reproduces itself. The caps of the fruit bodies are up to 15 cm (5+7⁄8 in) in diameter, red or brownish-red in color, initially convex but flattening out as they develop. [2] The cap is fleshy, with a rough surface that is slippery or slimy in young specimens, or in moist environments. Older specimens generally have dry and velvety cap surfaces. [7] The texture of the cap surface is rough, at first because of flattened-down (appressed) fibrils, and later with bent-back (recurved) scales or sometimes with cracked rough patches that resemble dried cracked mud. Young specimens may have a small flap of thin tissue attached to the margin or edge of the cap, remnants of a reduced partial veil. [15] The surface is covered with tufts of soft woolly hairs, and has persistent papillae. [2]

The tubes underneath the cap are up to 2.5 cm (1 in) long, [16] and are initially pale yellowish before becoming greenish-yellow with age, or mustard-yellow if injured. The pores have diameters of 1–2  mm. The flesh can be pale pink, yellow, or white in color, sometimes with hints of blue, and is usually red just beneath the surface. [17] The flesh is firm but watery, thick, and either not changing color or becoming deeper yellow with bruising. [7] It is 1 to 1.5 cm (3⁄8 to 5⁄8 in) thick at the junction of the stem with the cap. [18]

The stem is up to 12 cm (4+3⁄4 in) long, usually thickest at the base and tapering upward, up to 4 cm (1+5⁄8 in) thick below and 0.5 to 1 cm (1⁄4 to 3⁄8 in) at the apex. It typically starts out with a bulbous shape but becomes more equal in width throughout as it matures. The surface is dry, often roughened and pitted, and with a network of grooves or ridges (striations) or reticulations near the top of the stem. It is about the same color as the cap, but will bruise to a darker reddish-brown near the base. The stem is solid (that is, not hollow), and its flesh pale purplish at the top, but yellowish below. Mycelium at the base of the stem is also yellow. [18]

Microscopic characteristics

Collected in deposit, the spores of B. mirabilis are olive-brown. [2] Viewed with a microscope, the spores are spindle-shaped to roughly elliptical, with smooth, thick walls, and have dimensions of 18–22 by 7–9  μm. Overholts' 1940 publication on the species reported spore dimensions of 20–26 by 8–9 μm. [19] The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are club-shaped, hyaline (translucent), 4-spored, and have dimensions of 31–36 by 7–11 μm. Cystidia (sterile cells on the face of a gill) are thin-walled, and measure 60–90 by 10–18 μm. [7] There are no clamp connections present in the hyphae. [16]

Edibility

Aureoboletus mirabilis is edible, yet tasteless according to Murrill, who also noted "this is one of the most difficult species to preserve, owing to its extremely juicy consistency". [2] In contrast, modern field guides suggest this species to be an excellent edible. [7] [12] The Polish Heritage Cookery book opines that in taste, only Boletus edulis surpasses it. [20] When sauteed in butter, the flesh has been noted to have a lemony taste. [21] Field specimens covered with the white mold Sepedonium ampullosporum should not be consumed. [10] The mushroom may also be attacked by Hypomyces chrysospermus . [17]

Chemical reactions

Chemical tests are sometimes used to rapidly distinguish between closely related or morphologically similar species of mushrooms, or, in some cases, as characters to group species into subsections of a genus. Pigments present in the fungal hyphae are dissolved or react differently with various chemicals, and the color reactions may be used as taxonomic characters. When a drop of 10% aqueous solution of ammonium hydroxide is applied to the cap of B. mirabilis, the tissue turns a fleeting pink color that fades away. If a drop of commercial bleach (calcium hypochlorite) is applied, the tissue loses its color and becomes a pale blue. [22]

Similar species

Aureoboletus mirabilis differs from other boletes in the covering of the cap, which superficially resembles that found on the surface of Boletellus ananas and Strobilomyces strobilaceus , but the scales are more rigid with a somewhat conical shape. It can be distinguished from these two species by both its bay-brown color, and the absence of a veil. Both of the other species mentioned possess a conspicuous veil, and the former is tan to brown with a pinkish tint, while the latter is dark brown or black. [2] Boletus edulis is separated from A. mirabilis by the color and texture of the cap, tubes and stem. Boletus coniferarum turns blue when bruised and has a very bitter taste. [18] Aureoboletus projectellus is also similar in appearance to Aureoboletus mirabilis, but is found in eastern North America. [21]

Habitat and distribution

Growing out of a decaying hemlock stump, Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest, Washington, USA Aureoboletus mirabilis Mt Baker Snoqualmie NF.jpg
Growing out of a decaying hemlock stump, Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest, Washington, USA

The fruit bodies of Aureoboletus mirabilis grow solitarily, scattered, or sometimes in small groups on the ground or on well-decayed conifer logs, especially of western and mountain hemlock, but occasionally also Douglas-fir and western red cedar. [21] The fungus is strongly suspected to form mycorrhizal associations with hemlock, although standard attempts at growing B. mirabilis mycorrhizae in laboratory culture have failed. [23] Although fruit bodies are sometimes found growing on logs with advanced brown cubical rot—a trait suggestive of cellulose-decomposing saprobic fungi—the rotten wood harboring the fungi typically contains abundant conifer roots. It has been suggested that B. mirabilis has specifically adapted to this niche to reduce competition for nutrients with other mycorrhizal fungi, and further, that the inability to culture mycorrhizae in the lab using standard techniques may be because certain physical or chemical characteristics of the wood with brown cubical rot are required for fungal growth. [23]

Aureoboletus mirabilis, which usually appears from late summer to autumn, is distributed in the hemlock forests of the Pacific Coast Ranges from Northern California to Alaska, the Cascade Range, as well as in interior forests such as in Manitoba. [7] [19] [24] It has a disjunct distribution, as it has been also been collected in Japan and Taiwan. [25] [26]

See also

Related Research Articles

<i>Rubroboletus pulcherrimus</i> Species of mushroom

Rubroboletus pulcherrimus, known as Boletus pulcherrimus until 2015, and commonly known as the red-pored bolete, is a species of mushroom in the family Boletaceae. It is a large bolete from Western North America with distinguishing features that include a netted surface on the stem, a red to brown cap and stem color, and red pores that stain blue upon injury. Until 2005 this was the only bolete that has been implicated in the death of someone consuming it; a couple developed gastrointestinal symptoms in 1994 after eating this fungus with the husband succumbing. Autopsy revealed infarction of the midgut.

<i>Xerocomus subtomentosus</i> Species of fungus

Xerocomus subtomentosus, commonly known as suede bolete, brown and yellow bolete , boring brown bolete or yellow-cracked bolete, is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae. The fungus was initially described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 and known for many years as Boletus subtomentosus. It is edible, though not as highly regarded as other bolete mushrooms.

<i>Boletellus</i> Genus of fungi

Boletellus is a genus of fungi in the family Boletaceae. The genus has a widespread distribution, especially in subtropical regions, and contains about 50 species. The genus was first described by American mycologist William Alphonso Murrill in 1909. The genus name means "small Boletus".

<i>Boletellus obscurecoccineus</i> Species of fungus

Boletellus obscurecoccineus, known as the rhubarb bolete, is a species of fungus in the family Boletaceae, found in Australia, New Guinea, Java, Borneo, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan. It is a distinctive and colourful bolete of the forest floor.

<i>Bothia</i> Genus of fungi

Bothia is a fungal genus in the family Boletaceae. A monotypic genus, it contains the single species Bothia castanella, a bolete mushroom first described scientifically in 1900 from collections made in New Jersey. Found in the eastern United States, Costa Rica, China, and Taiwan, it grows in a mycorrhizal association with oak trees. Its fruit body is chestnut brown, the cap is smooth and dry, and the underside of the cap has radially elongated tubes. The spore deposit is yellow-brown. The edibility of the mushroom is unknown. Historically, its unique combination of morphological features resulted in the transfer of B. castanella to six different Boletaceae genera. Molecular phylogenetic analysis, published in 2007, demonstrated that the species was genetically unique enough to warrant placement in its own genus.

<i>Exsudoporus frostii</i> Species of fungus in the family Boletaceae found in North America

Exsudoporus frostii, commonly known as Frost's bolete or the apple bolete, is a bolete fungus first described scientifically in 1874. A member of the family Boletaceae, the mushrooms produced by the fungus have tubes and pores instead of gills on the underside of their caps. Exsudoporus frostii is distributed in the eastern United States from Maine to Georgia, and in the southwest from Arizona extending south to Mexico and Costa Rica. A mycorrhizal species, its fruit bodies are typically found growing near hardwood trees, especially oak.

<i>Xerocomellus zelleri</i> Species of fungus

Xerocomellus zelleri, commonly known as Zeller's bolete, is an edible species of mushroom in the family Boletaceae. First described scientifically by American mycologist William Alphonso Murrill in 1912, the species has been juggled by various authors to several genera, including Boletus, Boletellus, and Xerocomus. Found solely in western North America from British Columbia south to Mexico, the fruit bodies are distinguished by their dark reddish brown to nearly black caps with uneven surfaces, the yellow pores on the underside of the caps, and the red-streaked yellow stems. The fungus grows in summer and autumn on the ground, often in Douglas fir forests or on their margins. The development of the fruit bodies is gymnocarpic, meaning that the hymenium appears and develops to maturity in an exposed state, not enclosed by any protective membrane.

<i>Boletellus ananas</i> Species of fungus

Boletellus ananas, commonly known as the pineapple bolete, is a mushroom in the family Boletaceae, and the type species of the genus Boletellus. It is distributed in southeastern North America, northeastern South America, Asia, and New Zealand, where it grows scattered or in groups on the ground, often at the base of oak and pine trees. The fruit body is characterized by the reddish-pink scales on the cap that are often found hanging from the edge. The pore surface on the underside of the cap is made of irregular or angular pores up to 2 mm wide that bruise a blue color. It is yellow when young but ages to a deep olive-brown color. Microscopically, B. ananas is distinguished by large spores with cross striae on the ridges and spirally encrusted hyphae in the marginal appendiculae and flesh of the stem. Previously known as Boletus ananas and Boletus coccinea, the species was given its current name by William Alphonso Murrill in 1909. Two varieties of Boletellus ananas have been described. Like many other boletes, this species is considered edible, but it is not recommended for consumption.

<i>Butyriboletus regius</i> Species of fungus

Butyriboletus regius, commonly known as the royal bolete or red-capped butter bolete, is a basidiomycete fungus of the genus Butyriboletus found in China and Europe. B. regius has a pink cap, yellow flesh, and a reticulate pattern on the stem. Harry D. Thiers described a similar mushroom from California as B. regius, though it is not the same species. B. regius in Europe does not stain when exposed to air, or stains weakly, but the California species stains blue. Both European and California species are considered choice edibles.

<i>Aureoboletus russellii</i> Species of fungus

Aureoboletus russellii, commonly known as the Russell's bolete, or jagged-stemmed bolete, is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae. An edible species, it is found in Asia and eastern North America, where it grows in a mycorrhizal association with oak, hemlock, and pine trees. Fruit bodies of the fungus are characterized by their coarsely shaggy stem. The yellow-brown to reddish-brown caps are initially velvety, but become cracked into patches with age.

<i>Tylopilus tabacinus</i> Species of fungus

Tylopilus tabacinus is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae. It is characterized by a tawny-brown cap measuring up to 17.5 cm (6.9 in) in diameter, and a reticulated stem up to 16.5 cm (6.5 in) long by 6 cm (2.4 in) thick. A characteristic microscopic feature is the distinctive crystalline substance encrusted on the hyphae in the surface of the cap. The species is known from the eastern United States from Florida north to Rhode Island, and west to Mississippi, and from eastern Mexico. It is a mycorrhizal species, and associates with oak and beech trees.

<i>Tylopilus alboater</i> Species of fungus

Tylopilus alboater, called the black velvet bolete, by some, is a bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae. The species is found in North America east of the Rocky Mountains, and in eastern Asia, including China, Japan, Taiwan, and Thailand. A mycorrhizal species, it grows solitarily, scattered, or in groups on the ground usually under deciduous trees, particularly oak, although it has been recorded from deciduous, coniferous, and mixed forests.

<i>Boletus curtisii</i> Species of fungus

Boletus curtisii is a species of fungus in the family Boletaceae. It produces small- to medium-sized fruit bodies (mushrooms) with a convex cap up to 9.5 cm (3.7 in) wide atop a slender stem that can reach a length of 12 cm (4.7 in). In young specimens, the cap and stem are bright golden yellow, although the color dulls to brownish when old. Both the stem and cap are slimy or sticky when young. On the underside of the cap are small circular to angular pores. The mushroom is edible, but not appealing. It is found in eastern and southern North America, where it grows in a mycorrhizal association with hardwood and conifer trees. Once classified as a species of Pulveroboletus, the yellow color of B. curtisii is a result of pigments chemically distinct from those responsible for the yellow coloring of Pulveroboletus.

<i>Boletus auripes</i> Species of fungus

Boletus auripes, commonly known as the butter-foot bolete, is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae. First described from New York in 1898, the fungus is found in eastern Asia, Central America, and eastern North America from Canada to Florida. It is a mycorrhizal species and typically grows in association with oak and beech trees.

<i>Aureoboletus auriflammeus</i> Species of fungus

Aureoboletus auriflammeus, commonly known as the flaming gold bolete, is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae. Described as new to science in 1872, it is found in eastern North America, where it grows in a mycorrhizal association with oaks. The caps of the fruit bodies are golden orange, with a yellow pore surface on the underside, and a reticulated (network-like) stem. The edibility of the mushroom is not known.

<i>Aureoboletus projectellus</i> Species of fungus

Aureoboletus projectellus is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae. Found in North America, and recently in Europe, it grows in a mycorrhizal association with pine trees.

<i>Xerocomellus</i> Genus of fungi

Xerocomellus is a genus of fungi in the family Boletaceae. The genus, as it was described in 2008, contained 12 species. However X. rubellus and X. engelii were transferred to the new genus Hortiboletus and X. armeniacus was transferred to the new genus Rheubarbariboletus in 2015. Molecular analysis supports the distinction of Xerocomellus species from Boletus and Xerocomus, within which these species were formerly contained. Xerocomellus in fact is only distantly related to Xerocomus and is most closely related to Tylopilus, Boletus sensu stricto, Porphyrellus, Strobilomyces, and Xanthoconium.

<i>Harrya chromapes</i> Species of fungus

Harrya chromapes, commonly known as the yellowfoot bolete or the chrome-footed bolete, is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae. The bolete is found in eastern North America, Costa Rica, and eastern Asia, where it grows on the ground, in a mycorrhizal association with deciduous and coniferous trees. Fruit bodies have smooth, rose-pink caps that are initially convex before flattening out. The pores on the cap undersurface are white, aging to a pale pink as the spores mature. The thick stipe has fine pink or reddish dots (scabers), and is white to pinkish but with a bright yellow base. The mushrooms are edible but are popular with insects, and so they are often infested with maggots.

<i>Sutorius eximius</i> Species of fungus

Sutorius eximius, commonly known as the lilac-brown bolete, is a species of fungus in the family Boletaceae. This bolete produces fruit bodies that are dark purple to chocolate brown in color with a smooth cap, a finely scaly stipe, and a reddish-brown spore print. The tiny pores on the cap underside are chocolate to violet brown. It is widely distributed, having been recorded on North America, South America, and Asia, where it grows in a mycorrhizal relationship with both coniferous and deciduous trees.

<i>Aureoboletus betula</i> Species of fungus

Aureoboletus betula is a species of mushroom producing fungus in the family Boletaceae. It is commonly known as the Shaggy Stalked Bolete.

References

  1. 1 2 "MycoBank, the fungal website". MycoBank . International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2015-09-11.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Murrill WA. (1912). "Polyporaceae and Boletaceae of the Pacific Coast". Mycologia. 4 (2): 91–100. doi:10.2307/3753546. JSTOR   3753546.
  3. ↑ Murrill WA. (1912). "The Agaricaeae of the Pacific Coast: I". Mycologia. 4 (4): 205–17. doi:10.2307/3753356. JSTOR   3753356.
  4. ↑ Singer R. (1940). "Notes sur quelques Basidiomycètes. VI". Revue de Mycologie (in French). 5: 3–13.
  5. ↑ Singer R. (1945). "The Boletineae of Florida with notes on extralimital species. I. The Strobilomycetaceae". Farlowia. 2: 97–141.
  6. ↑ Thiers HD. (1966). "California Boletes. II". Mycologia. 58 (6): 815–26. doi:10.2307/3757056. JSTOR   3757056.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Thiers HD. (1975). California Mushrooms—A Field Guide to the Boletes. New York, NY: Hafner Press. p. 261. Retrieved 2010-01-20.
  8. ↑ Horak E. (2004). "Heimioporus E. Horak gen. nov. - replacing Heimiella Boedijn (1951, syn. post., Boletales, Basidiomycota)". Sydowia. 56 (2): 237–40.
  9. 1 2 Halling RE, Fechner N, Nuhn M, Osmundson T, Soytong K, Arora D, Binder M, Hibbett D (2015). "Evolutionary relationships of Heimioporus and Boletellus (Boletales), with an emphasis on Australian taxa including new species and new combinations in Aureoboletus, Hemileccinum and Xerocomus". Australian Systematic Botany. 28 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1071/SB14049. S2CID   82844711.
  10. 1 2 Smith AH, Weber NS (1980). The Mushroom Hunter's Field Guide. Ann Arbor, Mich: University of Michigan Press. p. 108. ISBN   0-472-85610-3 . Retrieved 2010-01-20.
  11. ↑ Arora D. (1986). Mushrooms Demystified: a Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi. Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press. p. 50. ISBN   0-89815-169-4 . Retrieved 2010-01-19.
  12. 1 2 McKnight VB, McKnight KH (1987). A Field Guide to Mushrooms, North America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 106. ISBN   0-395-91090-0 . Retrieved 2009-09-18.
  13. ↑ Laporte MF, Wetzel S, Duchesne LC (2006). Bioproducts From Canada's Forests: New Partnerships in the Bioeconomy. Berlin: Springer. ISBN   1-4020-4991-9.
  14. ↑ Grubisha LC, Trappe JM, Molina R, Spatafora JW (2001). "Biology of the ectomycorrhizal genus Rhizopogon. V. Phylogenetic relationships in the Boletales inferred from LSU rDNA sequences". Mycologia. 93 (1): 82–89. doi:10.2307/3761607. JSTOR   3761607.
  15. ↑ Miller HR, Miller OK (2006). North American Mushrooms: a Field Guide to Edible and Inedible Fungi. Guilford, Conn: Falcon Guide. p. 391. ISBN   0-7627-3109-5 . Retrieved 2009-01-20.
  16. 1 2 Tylukti EE. (1987). Mushrooms of Idaho and the Pacific Northwest. Vol. 2. Non-gilled Hymenomycetes. Moscow, Idaho: The University of Idaho Press. pp. 7–8. ISBN   0-89301-097-9.
  17. 1 2 Trudell, Steve; Ammirati, Joe (2009). Mushrooms of the Pacific Northwest. Timber Press Field Guides. Portland, OR: Timber Press. pp. 217–218. ISBN   978-0-88192-935-5.
  18. 1 2 3 Gamiet S. "Boletus mirabilis". bcmushrooms.forrex.org. FORREX Forum for Research and Extension in Natural Resources. Archived from the original on 2009-11-04. Retrieved 2010-01-19.
  19. 1 2 Overholts LO. (1940). "Mycological Notes for 1936–8". Mycologia. 32 (2): 251–63. doi:10.2307/3754496. JSTOR   3754496.
  20. ↑ Strybel M, Strybel R (2005). Polish Heritage Cookery. Hippocrene Books. p. 398. ISBN   0-7818-1124-4 . Retrieved 2010-01-20.
  21. 1 2 3 Bessette A, Fischer DH (1992). Edible Wild Mushrooms of North America: a Field-to-Kitchen Guide. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 97–98. ISBN   0-292-72080-7 . Retrieved 2010-01-20.
  22. ↑ Baroni TJ. (1978). "Chemical spot-test reactions: Boletes". Mycologia. 70 (5): 1064–76. doi:10.2307/3759138. JSTOR   3759138.
  23. 1 2 Kropp BR, Trappe JM (1982). "Ectomycorrhizal Fungi of Tsuga heterophylla". Mycologia. 74 (3): 479–88. doi:10.2307/3792970. JSTOR   3792970.
  24. ↑ Snell W.H. (1936). "Notes on Boletes. V". Mycologia. 28 (5): 463–75. doi:10.2307/3754120. JSTOR   3754120.
  25. ↑ Hongo T. (1973). "Materials for Japanese fungal flora part 12". Nippon Kingakukai Kaiho (in Japanese). 14 (2): 165–68. ISSN   0029-0289.
  26. ↑ Hongo T, Chen C (1985). "New records of Agaricales from Taiwan". Memoirs of the Faculty of Education Shiga University Natural Science (35): 35–38.

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.