Banking in the United Kingdom encompasses a system of banks and bank-like financial institutions that provide financial services to consumers and businesses, overseen by regulators and ultimately, the central bank, the Bank of England. The sector consists of incumbent major banks and innovative challenger banks. Fitch has described it as "one of the most developed and competitive [banking] markets in the world". [1] It is undergoing rapid transformation, driven by technological advancements, evolving consumer demands, and regulatory changes. [2]
Key players include the "Big Four" retail banks: HSBC UK, Barclays UK, Lloyds Banking Group, and NatWest, which dominate the retail and commercial banking sectors along with other major banks, which include Santander UK, Nationwide Building Society, and other institutions which play significant roles. Digital Challenger banks include Revolut, Monzo, Starling Bank, and others, which offer mobile-first services to their customers.
The history of UK banking has been characterised by periods of both stability and crisis, and has adapted to the changing economic landscape over centuries and played a major role in the history of the global financial system.
The history of banking in the United Kingdom spans centuries, with its early origins dating back to the 17th century. Following the dissolution of English monasteries, goldsmiths, with their secure storage facilities for gold and valuables, became the initial informal bankers. They issued receipts for deposited valuables and later accepted written instructions for repayment or payment to third parties, laying the foundation for modern cheques and banknotes. Thomas Smith, a cloth merchant, opened England's first provincial bank in Nottingham around 1650. [3] [4]
Modern banking emerged in the 18th century. The Bank of England was founded in 1694 as a private bank to manage government debt and facilitate war financing against France, it received the right to issue banknotes and lend money. [5] The Industrial Revolution and increased international trade spurred the growth of banks, particularly in London, attracting influential merchant banking families like the Rothschilds and Barings. Banks expanded their services to include clearing facilities, security investments, and overdraft protections. The credit crisis of 1772 highlighted vulnerabilities in the burgeoning system, prompting stricter controls on banknote issuance by the Bank Charter Act 1844, giving the Bank of England a near monopoly on issuing notes. [5]
In the 19th century, the lifting of restrictions on the number of partners of a bank allowed the formation of larger, more stable joint-stock banks, leading to the consolidation of smaller country banks. [6] The Bank of England assumed the role of lender of last resort in times of crisis, providing liquidity to struggling banks to prevent systemic collapse. The Bank of England was nationalized by the Labour government in 1946, becoming the UK's official central bank. Banking Acts in 1979 and 1987 strengthened the regulatory framework, introducing licensing requirements for deposit-taking institutions and establishing a deposit protection fund. [5] [7] [8] The Consumer Credit Act 1974 was a major reform of consumer credit and hire agreements. [9]
The Big Bang deregulation of the London Stock Exchange in 1986 stimulated competition, leading to the demutualisation of building societies and further consolidation within the banking sector. The Bank of England was granted independence by the Labour government in 1997 providing operational independence in setting interest rates to meet the government's inflation target. [5] [10] The 2008 financial crisis highlighted weaknesses in the system, particularly the risky practices of some banks, leading to government interventions and rescues. The Financial Services Act 2012 transferred the responsibility for regulating and supervising banks and insurance companies back to the Bank of England, establishing the Prudential Regulation Authority (PRA) and Financial Conduct Authority (FCA). [7] [8]
In the 2020s, UK banks are actively embracing digital transformation, adopting technologies like AI, big data, and blockchain, and facing competition from neobanks and fintechs offering digital-first services. Nonetheless, banks are facing a number of challenges to meet consumer expectations. [11] [12] [13]
Banking in the United Kingdom has played a significant role in the history of the global financial system. Its influence stems from a combination of factors, including the early development of central banking with the Bank of England, the rise of London as a global financial centre for lending and investment around the world, and the subsequent evolution of sophisticated financial markets and institutions centred on the economy of London. [14] [15] [16]
Four large banks with international operations are headquartered in the United Kingdom: HSBC, which is the largest bank in Europe, [17] Barclays, Standard Chartered, and Natwest Group. For regulatory purposes, the first three banks are classified as global systemically important banks (GSIBs). [18] [19] [20] As well as retail and commercial banking these banks also offer various investment banking services, both within the United Kingdom and internationally.
| Bank | Origins | Headquarters | Market cap ($bn) [21] | Total assets ($bn) [22] | Global rank by total assets [22] | GSIB [18] |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| As of 23 November 2024 | ||||||
| HSBC | 1865 | London, England | 183.48 | 3,038.80 | 7th | Yes |
| Barclays | 1690 | London, England | 55.08 | 2,049.77 | 13th | Yes |
| Standard Chartered | 1853 | London, England | Yes | |||
| NatWest Group | 1968 | Edinburgh, Scotland | No | |||
These banks provide retail banking to the general public and commercial banking to companies within the United Kingdom. Retail banks are commonly referred to as "high street" banks, as they traditionally maintained widespread branch networks in towns and cities across the UK. [23] [24] However, 40% of branches closed between 2012 and 2022. [25]
The number of independent banks shrank significantly during the 2008 financial crisis. Northern Rock was nationalised by the UK Government and later sold to Virgin Money, which was acquired by Nationwide in 2024. [26] Bradford & Bingley followed, while Alliance & Leicester was acquired by Santander and merged into Santander UK. On 18 September 2008, Lloyds TSB agreed to acquire HBOS—including Halifax and the Bank of Scotland—a transaction completed in January 2009, forming Lloyds Banking Group. [27] [28] TSB was later spun out of Lloyds.
Retail and commercial banks offer a comprehensive range of services for individuals and businesses, including:
Services are increasingly digital and delivered online or through mobile banking apps. As a result, the number of physical bank branches has significantly decreased. [11] [12] [13]
The "Big Four" banks in the United Kingdom are commonly regarded to be HSBC, Barclays, Lloyds Banking Group, and NatWest Group, in order. This classification is primarily based on the total asset size of each banks UK-based holding company. [29] However, when measured by domestic assets alone, Barclays is the largest UK banking group, but not the largest retail bank—because a significant proportion of its assets are tied to investment banking operations rather than retail banking.
Both HSBC and Barclays are highly globalised banking groups with a major focus on investment banking and international markets. Over 80% of Barclays total group assets are tied to its investment banking division, [30] while nearly 70% of HSBC UK assets lie outside its ring-fenced retail subsidiary, HSBC UK Bank. [31] As a result, their respective ring-fenced retail entities represent only a fraction of the groups total balance sheets.
Following the Financial Services (Banking Reform) Act 2013, these banking groups, as well as Santander UK, are required to legally separate their retail and commercial banking operations into ring-fenced bodies. This structural change has shifted public and regulatory focus toward the scale of retail banking entities themselves. Measured by the size of their ring-fenced banks, Lloyds Bank—part of Lloyds Banking Group—is the largest retail bank in the UK. As of 2024, Barclays Bank UK ranks fifth among UK retail banks by assets, behind even the Bank of Scotland, due to Barclays strategic emphasis on wholesale and investment banking.
This contrast highlights the differing business models of the major banks: Lloyds and NatWest have maintained a strong focus on domestic retail banking, whereas HSBC and Barclays have concentrated more on international and investment banking activities, resulting in relatively smaller UK retail operations in practice.
In recent years, a new category of digital-only banks—often referred to as challenger or direct banks—has gained prominence in the UK retail banking market. These include Chase UK, Monzo Bank, and Starling Bank. Operating without physical branches, they differentiate themselves through mobile-first services, streamlined onboarding, and competitive digital features.
These banks have consistently performed at the top of the UK bi‑annual customer satisfaction surveys conducted by the Competition and Markets Authority (CMA). In the most recent survey covering July 2023 to June 2024, Monzo was ranked first and Starling Bank second for both personal and business current account satisfaction; Chase UK made its debut and secured third place for personal current accounts. [32] In the subsequent 2025 survey, Chase UK overtook Monzo to rank first among personal current account providers, with an 81% recommended‑by‑user score compared to Monzo 80%, and Starling third; Starling and Monzo remained the top two in the business current account rankings. [33]
These results highlight how digital banks, despite having smaller customer bases or asset volumes compared to the traditional "Big Four," often provide superior perceived service quality and customer experience. Chase UK, in particular, attracted over 1.6 million–2.5 million customers and held deposits of approximately £15 billion by mid‑2023, demonstrating rapid growth despite its recent market entry. [34]
The following table ranks the largest UK retail banks by total assets held within their ring-fenced or retail banking subsidiaries as of 2024.
| Largest UK retail banks by total assets (2024) | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rank | Bank | Parent group | Headquarters | Year Est. | Total assets (£m) | Staff | Branches |
| 1 | Lloyds Bank | Lloyds Banking Group | London, England | 1765 | 611,213 [35] | 65,435 | 386 |
| 2 | National Westminster Bank trading as NatWest, including Ulster Bank | NatWest Group | London, England | 1833 | 424,309 [36] | 55,800 | 381 |
| 3 | HSBC UK Bank including first direct | HSBC Holdings | Birmingham, England | 2015 | 340,877 [37] | 20,034 | 327 |
| 4 | Bank of Scotland including Halifax | Lloyds Banking Group | Edinburgh, Scotland | 1695 | 331,084 [38] | 20,673 | 371 |
| 5 | Barclays Bank UK | Barclays | London, England | 2015 | 303,179 [39] | 18,200 | 218 |
| 6 | Santander UK | Santander UK Group Holdings | London, England | 1944 | 259,944 [40] | 18,000 | 349 |
| 7 | The Royal Bank of Scotland | NatWest Group | Edinburgh, Scotland | 1727 | 90,476 [41] | 900 | 86 |
| 8 | Clydesdale Bank plc trading as Virgin Money | Nationwide Building Society | Glasgow, Scotland | 1838 | 89,876 [42] [a] | 7,305 | 91 |
| 9 | TSB Bank | Banco Sabadell | Edinburgh, Scotland | 1985 | 46,099 [43] | 5,047 | 190 |
| 10 | The Co-operative Bank | Coventry Building Society | Manchester, England | 1970 | 25,480 [44] | 3,224 | 77 |
There are also retail banking services offered by companies outside the traditional banking sector:
The other main class of consumer financial service organisation in the United Kingdom is the building society. The building society sector has become much smaller with fewer building societies. This was caused, firstly, a number of building societies demutualising in the 1980s and 1990s and subsequently, taken over by banks. Secondly, there has been ongoing consolidation via mergers between societies.
Building societies generally offer the same core services of banks, primarily savings accounts and mortgages, and in some cases also current accounts and personal loans.
There are 42 building societies in the UK as of June 2025, which provide retail banking services to the general public. [46] The five largest as of October 2020 are:
| Name | Year Est. | Headquarters | Total Assets (£bn) | Employees | Branches |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nationwide Building Society [b] | 1846 | Swindon, England | 367.9 [47] | 17,680 | 606 |
| Coventry Building Society | 1884 | Coventry, England | 62 [48] | 2,700 | 89 |
| Yorkshire Building Society (also own Chelsea Building Society, Norwich and Peterborough Building Society and Accord Mortgages | 1864 | Bradford, England | 39.6 | 3,300 | 231 |
| Skipton Building Society | 1853 | Skipton, England | 17.5 | 1,772 | 98 |
| Leeds Building Society | 1875 | Leeds, England | 20.8 | 1,426 | 65 |
There is a government-run savings bank called National Savings and Investments (NS&I). It provides various low-risk savings and investment products.
Credit unions in the UK are member-owned, not-for-profit financial cooperatives providing various services like savings, loans, and transactional banking. They operate under a "common bond," meaning members typically share a connection through their workplace, community, or organization. These institutions prioritise the financial well-being of their members and often offer more affordable options compared to traditional banks. [49] [50]
Credit unions offer a range of services, including savings accounts, loans (including personal, car, and home loans), current accounts, and insurance. [49]
The Bank of England is the central bank of the United Kingdom. It oversees financial markets and financial market infrastructure like clearing houses and payment systems. The Prudential Regulation Authority (PRA) is responsible for the financial safety and soundness of banks and the banking system. The Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) regulates how banks treat clients and behave in financial markets. The Payment Systems Regulator (PSR) oversees payment systems to ensure they are developed and operated in the interests of users while promoting competition and innovation. [51] [52] [53] [54]
The economic and regulatory environment has created a number of challenges for banks. [55]
The PRA regulates: [46]
The UK's banking sector is one of the most developed and competitive markets in the world.
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