Transport in England

Last updated

Avanti West Coast Pendolino (2) 7.20.jpg
Nottingham Tram.jpg
M60 motorway, Denton.jpg
Bridgwater Broadway - First 33312 (WK18CGU) on hire to SPS.JPG
Examples of transport in England

Transport in England includes road, rail, air, and water networks. [1]

Contents

A radial road network totals 29,145 miles (46,904 km) of main roads, 2,173 miles (3,497 km) of motorways and 213,750 miles (344,000 km) of paved roads. The National Rail network of 10,072 route miles (16,116 km) in Great Britain carries over 18,000 passenger and 1,000 freight trains daily. Urban rail networks and bus networks connecting cities and towns are widespread.

There are many regional and international airports, with Heathrow Airport in London being the second busiest in the world and the busiest in Europe. [2] Transport by canal and navigable river, once important, is minimal. Shipping provides the primary means of transport for import and export of goods.

The Department for Transport is the government department responsible for the transport network in England. The Secretary of State for Transport is the member of the cabinet responsible to Parliament for the Department for Transport. [3]

Passenger transport has grown in recent years. Figures from the DfT show that total passenger travel inside the United Kingdom has risen from 403 billion passenger kilometres in 1970 to 793 billion in 2015. [4]

Freight transport has undergone similar changes, increasing in volume and shifting from railways onto the road. In 1953 89 billion tonne kilometres of goods were moved, with rail accounting for 42%, road 36% and water 22%. By 2010 the volume of freight moved had more than doubled to 222 billion tonne kilometres, of which 9% was moved by rail, 19% by water, 5% by pipeline and 68% by road. [5] Despite the growth in tonne kilometres, the environmental external costs of trucks and lorries in the UK have reportedly decreased. Between 1990 and 2000, there has been a move to heavier goods vehicles due to major changes in the haulage industry including a shift in sales to larger articulated vehicles. A larger than average fleet turnover has ensured a swift introduction of new and cleaner vehicles in England and the rest of the UK. [6]

Figures from the DfT show in 2018 people made 4.8 billion local bus passenger journeys in England, 58% of all public transport journeys. There were 1.8 billion rail passenger journeys in England. Light rail and tram travel also continued to grow, to the highest level (0.3 million journeys) since comparable records began in 1983. Rail travel tends to be used for longer journeys. On average, people made 48 trips by bus and travelled 441 kilometres compared to 22 trips and 992 kilometres by rail in 2018. In 2018/19, there was £18.1bn of public expenditure on railways, an increase of 12% (£1.9bn). [7]

272 million passenger journeys were made on the eight light rail and tram systems in England in 2018/19. 87% of adults in London walked at least once a week - the highest rate in the country. This was followed by Isles of Scilly (83%) and Richmond upon Thames (83%). 57% of adults in Cambridge cycled at least once a week. This was followed by Oxford (39%) and Isles of Scilly (35%). [7]

Road

M62 motorway in Calderdale, Northern England M62 motorway, Calderdale.jpg
M62 motorway in Calderdale, Northern England

The road network in Great Britain in 2006 consisted of 7,596 miles (12,225 km) of trunk roads (including 2,176 miles (3,502 km) of motorway), 23,658 miles (38,074 km) of principal roads (including 34 miles (55 km) of motorway), 71,244 miles (114,656 km) of "B" and "C" roads, and 145,017 miles (233,382 km) of unclassified roads (mainly local streets and access roads) – totalling 247,523 miles (398,350 km). [8] [9]

Road is the most popular method of transport, carrying over 90% of motorised passenger travel and 65% of domestic freight. [9] The major motorways and trunk roads, many of which are dual carriageway, form the trunk network which links all cities and major towns. England contains a vast majority of the UK's longest motorways, dating from the first built in 1958 (part of the M6) to the most recent (A1(M). [10]

National Highways is responsible for maintaining motorways and trunk roads in England. Other English roads are maintained by local authorities. In London, Transport for London is responsible for all trunk roads and other major roads, which are part of the Transport for London Road Network. [11] The M25 is the largest and busiest bypass in the world. [12]

The London low emission zone covers all of Greater London, the largest such zone in the world. The London Ultra Low Emission Zone started in 2019. [13] Since 2015, more than 60 local authorities have been ordered to tackle illegal levels of air pollution and are planning to introduce clean air zones. [14] In 2020, Oxford became the first city to implement a Zero Emission Zone (ZEZ) scheme. The plan is to expand the ZEZ gradually into a much larger zone, until the ZEZ encompasses the majority of the city centre by 2035. [15] [16]

Driving is on the left. [17] The usual maximum speed limit is 70 miles per hour (112 km/h) on motorways and dual carriageways. [18] On 29 April 2015, the UK Supreme Court ruled that the government must take immediate action to cut air pollution, [19] following a case brought by environmental lawyers at ClientEarth. [20] The adoption of plug-in electric vehicles is actively supported by the Department for Transport through the plug-in car and van grants schemes and other incentives. England has some of the highest number of electric vehicles on roads in Europe. [21]

Bus transport

Bus in Somerset Silk Mills - Stagecoach 15326 (YN67YKK) boarding passengers.JPG
Bus in Somerset

Buses play a major role in the public transport of England, as well as seeing private use. England is covered by an extensive bus network throughout towns, cities and rural areas. It is estimated that 95% of the population live within 5 minutes walk of a bus stop. [22]

Since deregulation the majority (80% by the late 1990s) [23] of local bus companies have been taken over by one of the "Big Five" private transport companies: Arriva, FirstGroup, Go-Ahead Group, Mobico Group and Stagecoach Group. A small number of towns and cities, such as Reading and Nottingham, retained public ownership of their bus networks; [24] [25] other cities and regions such as West Yorkshire and Manchester, are bringing their networks back under public control. [26] [27]

Bus transport remains the most popular mode of transport throughout England. [28] Bus transport is heavily subsidised. In 2014/15, there were 4.65 billion bus journeys in England, 2.4 billion of which were in London. [29] Alternative methods of power for buses have been introduced in English cities to make transport less polluting and more sustainable in England. This will help the government's target to reach net zero emissions by 2050. [30] [31] In 2021, Transport for London introduced 20 hydrogen double-deckers, [32] and in 2024 Reading Borough Council announced the introduction of a fleet of electrically-powered buses and associated infrastructure for the town. [33]

Rail

England's railway transport is largely based on services originating from rail terminis in major cities, operating in all directions on tracks mostly owned by Network Rail. The rail network in Great Britain is the oldest such network in the world. The system consists of five high-speed main lines (the West Coast, East Coast, Midland, Great Western and Great Eastern), which radiate from London to the rest of the country, augmented by wide regional rail lines and dense commuter networks and other high-speed lines within major cities and towns. High Speed 1 is operationally separate from the rest of the network, and is built to the same standard as the TGV system in France. Eurostar operates high-speed trains via the Channel Tunnel to France, Belgium and the Netherlands through the Channel Tunnel under the English Channel, at 23.5 miles long it's the world's longest undersea tunnel. [34]

East Midlands Railway train in Leicestershire. East Midlands train Class 222 005 heading for London St Pancras - geograph.org.uk - 4931842.jpg
East Midlands Railway train in Leicestershire.

The world's first passenger railway running on steam was the Stockton and Darlington Railway, opened on 27 September 1825. Just under five years later the world's first intercity railway was the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, designed by George Stephenson and opened by the Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington on 15 September 1830. The network grew rapidly as a patchwork of literally hundreds of separate companies during the Victorian era, which eventually was consolidated into just four by 1922, as the boom in railways ended and they began to lose money. Eventually, the entire system came under state control in 1948, under the British Transport Commission's Railway Executive. After 1962 it came under the control of the British Railways Board; then British Railways (later British Rail), and the network was reduced to less than half of its original size by the infamous Beeching cuts of the 1960s when many unprofitable branch lines were closed. Several stations have been reopened throughout England. [35]

Opened in 1863, London Underground is the world's first underground railway. [36] Known as the "Father of Railways", Stephenson's rail gauge of 4 feet 8+1⁄2 inches (1,435 mm) is the standard gauge for most of the world's railways. Henry Maudsley's most influential invention was the screw-cutting lathe, a machine which created uniformity in screws and allowed for the application of interchangeable parts (a prerequisite for mass production): it was a revolutionary development necessary for the Industrial Revolution. [37] [38]

In England, the infrastructure (track, stations, depots and signalling chiefly) is owned and maintained by Network Rail. Passenger services are operated by mostly public train-operating companies (TOCs), with private franchises awarded by the Department for Transport. Examples include LNER, Avanti West Coast, East Midlands Railway, Hull Trains and Lumo. Freight trains are operated by freight operating companies, such as DB Cargo UK, which are commercial operations unsupported by the government. Most train operating companies do not own the locomotives and coaches that they use to operate passenger services. Instead, they are required to lease these from the three rolling stock companies.

London Paddington Station is a major terminus for the Great Western Main Line with passenger services operated by Great Western Railway. Paddington Station GWR.jpg
London Paddington Station is a major terminus for the Great Western Main Line with passenger services operated by Great Western Railway.

In Great Britain there is a 10,274 miles (16,534 km) of 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) gauge track, reduced from a historic peak of over 30,000 miles (48,000 km). Of this, 3,062 miles (4,928 km) is electrified and 7,823 miles (12,590 km) is double or multiple tracks. The maximum scheduled speed on the regular network has historically been around 125 miles per hour (201 km/h) on the InterCity lines. On High Speed 1, trains are now able to reach the speeds of French TGVs. High Speed 2 (HS2) is a new high speed railway linking up London, the Midlands, the North and Scotland serving over 25 stations, including eight of Britain's 10 largest cities and connecting around 30 million. [39]

The Network North programme consists of hundreds of transport projects mostly in Northern England and Midlands, including new high-speed lines linking up major cities and railway improvements. [40] To cope with increasing passenger numbers and a growing network, there is a large ongoing programme of upgrades to the network, including Thameslink, Crossrail, electrification of lines, in-cab signalling, new inter-city trains and new high-speed lines.

Short-distance travel that doesn't pass through London is generally referred to as cross country travel. Most services are operated by CrossCountry and often terminate in South East Wales or Scotland. Regional train services are also operated by these and train companies, and focus on the major cities, several of which have developed commuter and urban rail networks. This includes the London Overground and Merseyrail. The London Underground (commonly known as the Tube) is the oldest and one of the longest rapid transit systems in the world. The Office of Rail and Road is responsible for the economic and safety regulation of England's railways. [41]

Great British Railways (GBR) is a planned state-owned railway company that is to oversee passenger rail transport in Great Britain, with the exception of Transport for London, Merseytravel, and other English light rail and tram services. The publicly-owned body will be the long-term replacement for the previous rail franchising system which lasted from 1996 until its effective abolition in 2021. All train operating companies will be taken into public ownership as their contracts expire and then folded into GBR, reunifying passenger services under one publicly-owned entity for the first time since the privatisation of British Rail. This will not include open-access operators, who will be able to continue running services on selected routes. [42]

High-speed rail

LNER Azuma high-seed train on the East Coast Line. An LNER Azuma train on the East Coast Railway Line, geograph 6275180 by Walter Baxter cropped.jpg
LNER Azuma high-seed train on the East Coast Line.

During the age of steam locomotion, the railway industry in England strove to develop reliable technology for powering high-speed rail services between major cities. High-speed rail in England is provided on five upgraded railway lines running at top speeds of 125 mph (200 km/h) and one purpose-built high-speed line reaching 186 mph (300 km/h). Trains currently travel at 125 mph (200 km/h) on the East Coast Main Line, Great Western Main Line, Midland Main Line, parts of the Cross Country Route, and the West Coast Main Line.

High Speed 1 (HS1) line connects London to the Channel Tunnel, with international Eurostar services running from St Pancras International to cities in France, Belgium, and the Netherlands at 186 mph (300 km/h). [43] HS1 line was finished on time and under budget. The line is also used by high-speed commuter services from Kent to the capital. The CTRL project saw new bridges and tunnels built, with a combined length nearly as long as the Channel Tunnel itself, and significant archaeological research undertaken. [44]

Since 2019 construction has been ongoing on a major new purpose-built high-speed rail line, High Speed 2 (HS2) which will link London with major cities in the North and the Midlands at 224 mph (360 km/h) and reduce journey times to Scotland. [45] Government-backed plans to provide east-west high-speed services between cities in the North of England are also in development, as part of the Northern Powerhouse Rail project. [46] [47]

Rapid transit

Current railway lines in the United Kingdom, Ireland and the Isle of Man are shown in black and metro lines in red. Britain and Ireland railway map 2023.pdf
Current railway lines in the United Kingdom, Ireland and the Isle of Man are shown in black and metro lines in red.

Two cities in England have rapid transit systems. The most well known is the London Underground (commonly known as the Tube), the oldest rapid transit system in the world which opened 1863. It services Greater London and some parts of the adjacent home counties such as Buckinghamshire and Hertfordshire. [48]

Another system also in London is the separate Docklands Light Railway. Although this is more of an elevated light metro system due to its lower passenger capacities; further, it is integrated with the London Underground in many ways. One other system, the Tyne & Wear Metro which opened in 1980, serves Newcastle, Gateshead, Sunderland, North Tyneside and South Tyneside, and has many similarities to a rapid transit system including underground stations, but is sometimes considered to be light rail. [49]

Trams and light rail

Tram systems were popular in England in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. However, with the rise of the motor bus and later the car they began to be widely dismantled in the 1950s. By 1962, only Blackpool tramway remained. However, in recent decades trams have seen an extensive revival as have light rail systems. Examples of this second generation of tram systems and light rail include:

Cycling

Santander Cycles ("Boris Bikes") is a major public bicycle hire scheme in London. Santander Cycles at Canary Wharf.jpg
Santander Cycles ("Boris Bikes") is a major public bicycle hire scheme in London.

The National Cycle Network was established to encourage cycling and walking throughout England. It uses dedicated bike paths as well as roads with minimal traffic, and covers 14,000 miles, passing within a mile of half of all homes. [50] Other cycling routes such as The National Byway, the Sea to Sea Cycle Route, and local cycleways can be found across the country. Segregated cycle paths are being installed in cities and towns. [51]

The Department for Transport have made several key infrastructure investments, announcements and schemes to improve cycle infrastructure in England. [52] In 2020, new funding for active travel infrastructure in England was announced. [53] The government's stated aim is for England to be a "great walking and cycling nation" and for half of all journeys in towns and cities being walked or cycled by 2030. The plan accompanies £2 billion in additional funding over the following five years for cycling and walking.The plan also introduced a new body and inspectorate known as Active Travel England. [54]

Air

England is home to many of Europe's largest and busiest airports. London Heathrow, which handles over 80 million international passengers annually, is the largest airport in the UK. London serves as the largest aviation hub in the world by passenger traffic, with six international airports, handling over 180 million passengers in 2019, [55] more than any other city. [56] London's second-busiest airport, London Gatwick, was until 2016 the world's busiest single-runway airport. [57] Manchester Airport is the United Kingdom's third-busiest airport. London Stansted and London Luton are the fourth and fifth busiest airports.

The largest airport operator is Heathrow Airport Holdings (owner of Heathrow), followed by Manchester Airports Group (owner of Manchester, Stansted and East Midlands). Together with British Airways and Virgin Atlantic, they are part of the Aviation Foundation. [58]

Water

Major canal building began in England after the onset of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century. A large canal network was built and it became the primary method of transporting goods throughout the country; however, by the 1830s with the development of the railways, the canal network began to go into decline. There are currently 1,988 miles (3,199 km) of waterways in the United Kingdom and the primary use is recreational. 385 miles (620 km) is used for commerce.

Education and professional development

England has a well-developed network of organisations offering education and professional development in the transport and logistics sectors. A number of universities offer degree programmes in transport, usually covering transport planning, engineering of transport infrastructure, and management of transport and logistics services. The Institute for Transport Studies at the University of Leeds is one such organisation. Public research universities like The Open University offer degrees in transport, logistics, civil engineering and management studies. [59]

Pupils in England can study transport and logistics in apprenticeship studies at further education and sixth form colleges. [60] Professional development for those working in the transport and logistics sectors is provided by a number of Professional Institutes representing specific sectors. These include:

Through these professional bodies, transport planners and engineers can train for a number of professional qualifications, including:

See also

Related Research Articles

Most of the transport system in Ireland is in public hands, either side of the Irish border. The Irish road network has evolved separately in the two jurisdictions into which Ireland is divided, while the Irish rail network was mostly created prior to the partition of Ireland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transport in the Netherlands</span>

The Netherlands is both a very densely populated and a highly developed country in which transport is a key factor of the economy. Correspondingly it has a very dense and modern infrastructure, facilitating transport with road, rail, air and water networks. In its Global Competitiveness Report for 2014-2015, the World Economic Forum ranked the Dutch transport infrastructure fourth in the world.

Transport in Slovakia is possible by rail, road, air, or rivers. Slovakia is a developed Central European country with a well-developed rail network (3,662 km) and a highway system (854 km). The main international airport is the M. R. Štefánik Airport in the capital, Bratislava. The most important waterway is the river Danube, which is used by passenger, cargo, and freight ships. The two most important harbours in Slovakia are Komarno harbour and Bratislava harbour.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transport in Turkey</span>

Transport in Turkey is road-dominated and mostly fuelled by diesel. Transport consumes a quarter of energy in Turkey, and is a major source of air pollution in Turkey and greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey. The World Health Organization has called for more active transport such as cycling. As of 2023 health impact assessment is not done in Turkey.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transport in the United Kingdom</span>

Transport in the United Kingdom is facilitated by road, rail, air and water networks. Some aspects of transport are a devolved matter, with each of the countries of the United Kingdom having separate systems under separate governments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transport in Birmingham</span> Overview of the transport infrastructure in Birmingham

Birmingham is a major transport hub, due in part to its location in central England. The city is well connected by rail, road, and water. Public transport and key highways in the city are overseen by Transport for West Midlands (TfWM).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transport in Glasgow</span> Overview of transport in Glasgow

The city of Glasgow, Scotland, has a transport system encompassing air, rail, road and an underground light metro line. Prior to 1962, the city was also served by trams. Commuters travelling into Glasgow from the neighbouring local authorities of North and South Lanarkshire, Renfrewshire, East Renfrewshire, and East and West Dunbartonshire have a major influence on travel patterns, with tens of thousands of residents commuting into the city each day. The most popular mode of transport in the city is the car, used by two-thirds of people for journeys around the city.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transport in Wales</span> Overview of the transportation system in Wales

Transport in Wales is heavily influenced by the country's geography. Wales is predominantly hilly or mountainous, and the main settlements lie on the coasts of north and south Wales, while mid Wales and west Wales are lightly populated. The main transport corridors are east–west routes, many continuing eastwards into England.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transport in Scotland</span> Overview of the transport system in Scotland

Transport in Scotland is facilitated by road, rail, air and water networks. The Scottish Government and Scottish Parliament has control over most elements of transport policy within Scotland, with the Cabinet Secretary for Transport holding portfolio responsibility within the Scottish Government. Transport Scotland is the Executive Agency responsible for the Scottish transport network.

Bristol is a city in south west England, near the Bristol Channel coast, approximately 106 miles (170 km) west of London. Several factors have influenced the development of its transport network. It is a major centre of employment, retail, culture and higher education, has many historic areas, and has a history of maritime industry. The city has a population of 450,000, with a metropolitan area of 650,000, and lies at the centre of the former County of Avon, which includes many dormitory towns, and has a population of one million.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transport in London</span> Transport network serving London and surrounding regions

London has an extensive and developed transport network which includes both public and private services. Journeys made on its integrated transport network account for 37% of London's journeys while private services accounted for 36% of journeys, walking 24% and cycling 2%, according to numbers from 2017. London's public transport network serves as the central hub for the United Kingdom in rail, air and road transport.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transport in Manchester</span> Overview of the transport infrastructure of Greater Manchester

The transport infrastructure of Greater Manchester is built up of numerous transport modes and forms an integral part of the structure of Greater Manchester and North West England – the most populated region outside of South East England which had approximately 301 million annual passenger journeys using either buses, planes, trains or trams in 2014. Its position as a national city of commerce, education and cultural importance means the city has one of the largest and most thorough transport infrastructures which is heavily relied upon by its 2.8 million inhabitants in the Greater Manchester conurbation and further afield in the North West region. Public transport comes under the jurisdiction of Transport for Greater Manchester.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transport in Leeds</span> Road, rail and bus transportation in Leeds, England

Transport in Leeds consists of extensive road, bus and rail networks in Leeds, West Yorkshire, England. Public transport in the Leeds area is coordinated and developed by West Yorkshire Metro. The city has good rail and road links to the rest of the country. Leeds railway station is one of the busiest in Britain, and Leeds is connected to the national road network via the A1(M) motorway, M1 motorway and M62 motorway. The city is served by Leeds Bradford Airport.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transport in Tyne and Wear</span> Overview of transport in Tyne and Wear

Tyne and Wear is a metropolitan area covering the cities of Newcastle upon Tyne and Sunderland, as well as North and South Tyneside, Gateshead and Washington.

Liverpool in North West England, is a major British city with significant road, rail, and ferry networks, in addition to an international airport and a well-known dock system. As with most other major UK cities, Liverpool's transport infrastructure is centred on its road and rail networks. Public transport services within the city are controlled and run by Merseytravel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transport in Cambridge</span> Overview of the transport in Cambridge

Cambridge is a university town and the administrative centre of the county of Cambridgeshire, England. It lies in East Anglia about 50 miles (80 km) north of London. Its main transport links are the M11 road to London, the A14 east–west road and the West Anglia Main Line railway to London.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transport in Rome</span> Roman public transit

Rome has an extensive internal transport system and is one of the most important road, rail and air hubs in Italy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transport in East Anglia</span>

Transport in East Anglia consists of extensive road and rail networks as well as one of England's key regional airports and the country's busiest container port. Despite having very little motorway within their borders, the counties of Suffolk, Norfolk and Cambridgeshire have modern transport links with the rest of the country.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Manchester Airport High Speed station</span> Planned HS2 railway station

Manchester Airport High Speed Station was a planned High Speed 2 station at Manchester Airport, on the southern boundary of Manchester, England, next to Junction 5 of the M56 motorway on the northern side of the airport 1.5 miles (2.4 km) north-west of Manchester Airport railway station. In 2023 plans to build the line were dropped.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transport in Madrid</span> Overview of transport in Madrid

Madrid is served by highly developed transport infrastructure. Road, rail and air links are vital to maintain the economic position of Madrid as a leading centre of employment, enterprise, trade and tourism, providing effective connections with not only other parts of the region, but also the rest of Spain and Europe as a whole. Three quarters of a million people commute into the city to work, and these and other local travellers have available a high-capacity metropolitan road network and a well-used public transport system based on the Metro, the Cercanías local railways, and a dense network of bus routes.

References

  1. ↑ "Travel and transport". British Council.
  2. ↑ "Europe's Busiest Airports". Business Traveler USA. 12 April 2023. Retrieved 8 November 2023.
  3. ↑ "Secretary of State for Transport - GOV.UK". www.gov.uk. Retrieved 5 March 2020.
  4. ↑ "Department for Transport Statistics: Passenger transport: by mode, annual from 1952".
  5. ↑ "Department for Transport statistics" (PDF). Gov.uk.
  6. ↑ L. Int Panis; P. Waktiss; L. De Nocker; R. Torfs (October 2000). "A comparative analysis of trends in environmental externalities of road transport (1990–2010) in Belgium and the UK". TERA2K.
  7. 1 2 "Department for Transport: Transport Statistics Great Britain 2019" (PDF). Department for Transport. 2019. UKOpenGovernmentLicence.svg Text was copied from this source, which is available under an Open Government Licence v3.0. © Crown copyright.
  8. ↑ "Transport Statistics Great Britain: 2007 Edition". DFT. UK Department for Transport. September 2007. Archived from the original on 17 January 2008. Retrieved 2 March 2008.
  9. 1 2 Banks, Bayliss and Glaister (December 2007). "Motoring towards 2050: Roads and Reality" (PDF). RAC Foundation.
  10. ↑ "UK Road Network". Institution of Civil Engineers.
  11. ↑ "How roads are managed in the UK". Department for Transport. Archived from the original on 25 October 2007. Retrieved 18 November 2007.
  12. ↑ "Ten Interesting Facts about the M25 Motorway". Londontopia. 4 November 2022. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
  13. ↑ "World's first Ultra Low Emission Zone expands to cover inner London | London City Hall". www.london.gov.uk. Retrieved 24 December 2023.
  14. ↑ Tobin, Dominic (12 March 2019). "Clean air zone charges: where are Britain's low emission zones?". buyacar.co.uk. Retrieved 29 March 2020.
  15. ↑ Oxford City Council (20 March 2020). "Oxford's Zero Emission Zone - 20/03/2020 update". Oxford City Council . Retrieved 18 June 2020.
  16. ↑ "Clean Air Zones, Low Emission Zones and the London ULEZ". House of Commons.
  17. ↑ "159–161: General rules". The Highway Code. HMSO . Retrieved 25 November 2007.
  18. ↑ "117–126: Control of the vehicle". The Highway Code. HMSO. Retrieved 18 November 2007.
  19. ↑ "Court orders UK to cut NO2 air pollution". BBC News. BBC. 29 April 2015. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
  20. ↑ "UK Supreme Court orders Government to take "immediate action" on air pollution". ClientEarth. 29 April 2015. Archived from the original on 5 May 2015. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
  21. ↑ "More than 1m electric vehicles now on UK roads". www.fleetnews.co.uk. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
  22. ↑ "Annual bus statistics: England 2020/21" (PDF). Dft.gov.uk.
  23. ↑ "Department for Transport – GOV.UK" (PDF). Dft.gov.uk.
  24. ↑ "What happens when councils take control of buses?". BBC News. 19 May 2024. Retrieved 25 May 2024.
  25. ↑ "Celebrating 125 years of Nottingham City Transport being publicly owned – Transport Nottingham" . Retrieved 11 October 2023.
  26. ↑ "The BEE Network - Manchester's Buses are Renationalised". www.tutor2u.net. Retrieved 11 October 2023.
  27. ↑ "West Yorkshire Mayor takes buses back under public control". West Yorkshire Combined Authority. Retrieved 25 May 2024.
  28. ↑ "Bus back better". GOV.UK. Retrieved 3 October 2023.
  29. ↑ "Government bus statistics". Dft.gov.uk.
  30. ↑ "Multi-million pound scheme for zero-emission buses across England launched". GOV.UK.
  31. ↑ "British cities to get buses that suck pollution from the air". CNN. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
  32. ↑ "London launches England's first hydrogen-powered double decker buses". CityAM. 23 June 2021. Retrieved 23 June 2021.
  33. ↑ "Electric buses: Reading to get 24 new double-deckers". BBC News. 26 March 2024. Retrieved 25 May 2024.
  34. ↑ "Channel Tunnel, Tunnel, Europe". Britannica. 10 May 2024. Retrieved 11 May 2024.
  35. ↑ "Restoring Your Railway Fund". GOV.UK. 18 June 2022. Retrieved 26 May 2024.
  36. ↑ "Oyster card celebrates 150th Tube anniversary". BBC News. 10 December 2012. Retrieved 5 April 2016.
  37. ↑ "Henry Maudsley Facts". Yourdictionary.com. 22 May 2016.
  38. ↑ Quentin R. Skrabec, Jr. (2005). "The Metallurgic Age: The Victorian Flowering of Invention and Industrial Science". p. 169. McFarland
  39. ↑ "What is HS2".
  40. ↑ "Network North". GOV.UK. Retrieved 11 October 2023.
  41. ↑ "Office of Rail and Road (ORR)". Global Railway Review. Retrieved 24 December 2023.
  42. ↑ "First train services to return to public ownership revealed". GOV.UK. Retrieved 4 December 2024.
  43. ↑ "About Us – High Speed 1". Archived from the original on 11 June 2017. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
  44. ↑ Matthews, Roger (2003). The archaeology of Mesopotamia: theories and approaches. London: Routledge. p. 31. ISBN   978-0-415-25317-8. The development of this new railway resulted in the largest archaeological project to date in the United Kingdom
  45. ↑ "All stations to regeneration? Work on HS2 begins in earnest". TheGuardian.com . 19 January 2019. Archived from the original on 8 April 2019. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
  46. ↑ "Northern Powerhouse Rail | Transport for the North". Transport for the North. Archived from the original on 4 April 2019. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
  47. ↑ "PM pledge for Leeds to Manchester high-speed line". BBC News. Retrieved 6 October 2021.
  48. ↑ "An overview of the British rail industry" (PDF). Office of Rail and Road. 19 December 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 April 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2017.
  49. ↑ Michael Taplin (March 2013). "Home – World Systems List index – World List U-Z – United Kingdom (GB)". Light Rail Transit Association (LRTA). Archived from the original on 21 September 2015. Retrieved 19 May 2014.
  50. ↑ "About the National Cycle Network". Sustrans.org.uk. Retrieved 18 February 2016.
  51. ↑ "Cycleways". Transport for London.
  52. ↑ "£2 billion package to create new era for cycling and walking". GOV.UK. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
  53. ↑ "The second cycling and walking investment strategy (CWIS2)". GOV.UK. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
  54. ↑ "Active Travel England". GOV.UK. 1 June 2023. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
  55. ↑ "CAA Airport Data 2019". caa.co.uk. UK Civil Aviation Authority. 21 June 2020. Retrieved 21 June 2020.
  56. ↑ "A new airport for London" (PDF). Transport for London.
  57. ↑ "Our History | London Gatwick Airport". www.gatwickairport.com. Retrieved 4 December 2023.
  58. ↑ "Aviation Foundation" . Retrieved 5 September 2012.
  59. ↑ "Transport and Logistics - Flexible online learning". Business at The Open University. 25 March 2021. Retrieved 5 October 2021.
  60. ↑ "T Levels | The Next Level Qualification". www.tlevels.gov.uk. Retrieved 5 October 2021.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.