Belshazzar

Last updated

Belshazzar
Crown prince of Babylon
Nabonidus chronicle.jpg
The Nabonidus Chronicle, an ancient Babylonian text which chronicles the reign of Belshazzar's father and also documents the period during which Belshazzar was regent in Babylon
Died 12 October 539 BC (?)
Babylon (?)
Akkadian Bēl-šar-uṣur
Dynasty Chaldean dynasty
(matrilineal) (?)
Father Nabonidus
Mother Nitocris (?)
(A daughter of Nebuchadnezzar II) (?)

Belshazzar (Babylonian cuneiform: Belshazzar in cuneiform.png   Bēl-šar-uṣur, [1] [2] meaning "Bel, protect the king"; [3] Hebrew : בֵּלְשַׁאצַּר‎Bēlšaʾṣṣar) was the son and crown prince of Nabonidus (r. 556–539 BC), the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Through his mother, he might have been a grandson of Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605–562 BC), though this is not certain and the claims to kinship with Nebuchadnezzar may have originated from royal propaganda.

Contents

Belshazzar played a pivotal role in the coup d'état that overthrew the king Labashi-Marduk (r. 556 BC) and brought Nabonidus to power in 556 BC. Since Belshazzar was the main beneficiary of the coup, through confiscating and inheriting Labashi-Marduk's estates and wealth, it is likely that he was the chief orchestrator. Through proclaiming his father as the new king, Belshazzar also made himself the first-in-line to the throne. As Nabonidus was relatively old at the time, Belshazzar could expect to become king within a few years.

Nabonidus was absent from Babylon from 553 BC to 543 or 542 BC, in self-imposed "exile" at Tayma in Arabia, for unknown reasons. For the duration of the decade-long absence of his father, Belshazzar served as regent in Babylon. Belshazzar was entrusted with many typically royal prerogatives, such as granting privileges, commanding portions of the army, and receiving offerings and oaths, though he continued to be styled as the crown prince (mār šarri, literally meaning "son of the king"), never assuming the title of king (šarru). Belshazzar also lacked many of the prerogatives of kingship, most importantly he was not allowed to preside over and officiate the Babylonian New Year's festival, which was the exclusive right of the king himself. Belshazzar's fate is not known, but is often assumed that he was killed during Cyrus the Great's Persian invasion of Babylonia in 539 BC, presumably at the fall of the capital Babylon on 12 October 539 BC.

Belshazzar appears as a central character in the story of Belshazzar's feast in the Biblical Book of Daniel, [4] recognized by scholars as a work of historical fiction. [5] [6] [7] Daniel's Belshazzar is not malevolent (he, for instance, rewards Daniel for his interpretation of "the writing on the wall"), but in later Jewish tradition Belshazzar was presented as a tyrant who oppresses the Jewish people. [8]

Biography

Background

Stele depicting Nabonidus, Belshazzar's father Nabonidus.jpg
Stele depicting Nabonidus, Belshazzar's father

Belshazzar was the son of Nabonidus, [9] an elderly courtier who would rise to become the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. There are various theories concerning Nabonidus's origins, and in turn what claim he had to the throne, since it is not made clear in any contemporary sources. It is possible that Nabonidus was married to one of Nebuchadnezzar II's daughters. Not only would such a connection explain Nabonidus's rise to the throne (due to his being a member of the royal family), but it would also explain later historical traditions in which Belshazzar is described as Nebuchadnezzar's descendant. In the Book of Daniel in the Hebrew Bible, Belshazzar is referred to as Nebuchadnezzar's (grand)son. [10] It is alternatively possible that later traditions of Belshazzar being a descendant of Nebuchadnezzar are derived from royal propaganda, and that there was no connection to the previous ruling Chaldean dynasty. [1]

The ancient Greek historian Herodotus names the "last great queen" of the Babylonian Empire as Nitocris, though that name (nor any other name) is not attested in contemporary Babylonian sources. Herodotus's description of Nitocris contains a wealth of legendary material that makes it difficult to determine whether he uses the name to refer to Nabonidus's wife or mother, but William H. Shea proposed in 1982 that Nitocris may tentatively be identified as the name of Nabonidus's wife and Belshazzar's mother. [11]

The most important sources for the time of Belshazzar are the Nabonidus Chronicle, the Cyrus Cylinder, and the Verse Account of Nabonidus—which, despite its name, was commissioned by the Persian conqueror Cyrus the Great. [12] As all of these ancient Babylonian documents were written after Babylon was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire, they are biased in favor of Cyrus, and against Nabonidus and Belshazzar. [13]

Conspiracy and accession of Nabonidus

Belshazzar's father was proclaimed as king in May 556 BC, [14] and by the end of June, tablets recognising Nabonidus are known from across Babylonia. [15] Belshazzar's father came to the throne as a result of a conspiracy that saw the deposition and murder of the previous king, Labashi-Marduk. [16] The sources suggest that while he was part of the conspiracy, Nabonidus had not intended, nor expected, to become king himself and he was hesitant to accept the nomination. [17] After the accession of his father, Belshazzar emerges in the sources as a prominent businessman and the head of a wealthy household, a role that was typically not picked up by members of the royal family in the Neo-Babylonian period. The only other similar case is Neriglissar, though Neriglissar lacked royal blood and had not been the intended successor to the throne, and abandoned his estates upon becoming king, seemingly entrusting them to Labashi-Marduk, his crown prince, and a figure of unclear connections called Nabu-sabit-qate. Whereas Neriglissar's career as a businessman prior to becoming king can be followed through a trail of surviving business documents, Belshazzar appears to have become a prominent member of the Babylonian oligarchy overnight [18] (Belshazzar, in contrast to his co-conspirators was notably not a member of the old Babylonian aristocracy), [19] not being mentioned in any business documents or private transactions prior to Nabonidus becoming king. [20]

By examining surviving documents from Belshazzar's time as crown prince, it appears that the estates of Neriglissar's family were confiscated after Labashi-Marduk's death and that they were claimed and taken over by Belshazzar. [20] This is supported by documents describing business transactions of Belshazzar mentioning the same locations, and even the same household and servants, as similar earlier documents of Neriglissar. Since there is little change in the prominent members of Neriglissar's and Labashi-Marduk's former household under Belshazzar, it is probable that Belshazzar becoming the master of the household was met with relatively little opposition. Through the deposition of Labashi-Marduk, Belshazzar had positioned himself to become the heir of one of Babylonia's wealthiest families. [21] Belshazzar is recorded as owning lands throughout Babylonia, for instance owning an agricultural settlement near Uruk. [22]

As he was clearly the main beneficiary of the coup, Belshazzar was likely the chief orchestrator of the conspiracy ended in the deposition and death of Labashi-Marduk. Because he could hardly proclaim himself as king while his father was still alive, Belshazzar proclaimed Nabonidus as king. As Nabonidus was relatively old at the time, his reign could be expected to be brief and transitional, meaning that Belshazzar could expect to inherit the throne within a few years. [23]

Regent in Babylon

This clay cylinder records the restoration of Sin's ziggurat at Ur by Nabonidus, and also asks him to protect Nabonidus and his son, Belshazzar. From Ur, Iraq Nabonidus's preoccupation with the moon god Sin led to building work outside Babylon. This clay cylinder records the restoration of Sin's ziggurat at Ur, and also asks him to protect Nabonidus and his son, Belshazzar. From Ur, Iraq.jpg
This clay cylinder records the restoration of Sin's ziggurat at Ur by Nabonidus, and also asks him to protect Nabonidus and his son, Belshazzar. From Ur, Iraq
This administrative document is dated to the "24th day of Kislimu in the 11th year of Nabonidus, king of Babylon". It mentions a slave of Bel-sharra-usur (Belshazzar), son of the king. Although Belshazzar is acting as a regent, the formal date shows that Nabonidus is still the reigning king. From Borsippa, Iraq This administrative document is dated to the 24th day of Kislimu in the 11th year of Nabonidus, king of Babylon. It mentions a slave of Bel-sharra-usur (Belshazzar), son of the king. From Borsippa, Iraq.jpg
This administrative document is dated to the "24th day of Kislimu in the 11th year of Nabonidus, king of Babylon". It mentions a slave of Bel-sharra-usur (Belshazzar), son of the king. Although Belshazzar is acting as a regent, the formal date shows that Nabonidus is still the reigning king. From Borsippa, Iraq
Map of the Neo-Babylonian Empire under Nabonidus Neo-Babylonian Empire under Nabonidus map.png
Map of the Neo-Babylonian Empire under Nabonidus

Nabonidus left Babylon in May 553 BC to campaign in the west. He eventually led his forces into Arabia, conquering several cities, including the city of Tayma. [24] Nabonidus made Tayma his provisional seat and he would stay there for about a decade, not returning to Babylon until September or October of 543 or 542 BC. [25] October 543 BC is the return date most supported by surviving Babylonian documentation. [26] The purpose for this prolonged stay, effectively self-exile, in Tayma are unclear and debated. [27] [28] During Nabonidus's absence, Belshazzar was put in charge of the administration in Babylonia. [12] [29] Though this period has often been dubbed a "co-regency", Belshazzar never assumed an official title. [29] [1] The Verse Account of Nabonidus, a biased [13] document probably written after Nabonidus was deposed by Cyrus the Great, states that Nabonidus entrusted Belshazzar with the kingship, but there are no records of Belshazzar assuming the royal title. [30] Though it is clear that Belshazzar during his father's absence assumed many responsibilities typically only held by the king, [22] several prerogatives were also kept solely by Nabonidus. [31] These include:

Though Belshazzar's authority was thus limited, he also was allowed, and assumed, certain royal responsibilities. [35] These include:

The events that transpired in Babylonia during Belshazzar's regency are not well known, owing to a lack of surviving sources. It is clear that the New Year's festival was not celebrated, and that there was concern regarding the rising power of the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great. The Babylonian chronicles describe the actions and conquests of Cyrus in detail throughout Belshazzar's regency. [41] As Nabonidus's stay in Tayma continued, Belshazzar became acutely aware of the threat presented by the Achaemenids, as he is recorded as having expended resources at projects in Sippar and nearby defenses. [25] In 546 BC, Cyrus the Great crossed the Tigris to invade Lydia, ostensibly a Babylonian ally, and though Belshazzar took up a defensive position with his army, perhaps expecting a sudden Persian attack against Babylonia itself, no aid was sent to the Lydians, who were swiftly conquered by Cyrus. It is possible that Belshazzar had campaigned against the Persians on Lydia's behalf a year prior, in 547 BC. The fall of Lydia in 546 BC meant that the Neo-Babylonian Empire was now effectively encircled by a stronger kingdom which had nearly unlimited resources at its disposal. It seems likely that skirmishes along the border were frequent from then until Babylon's fall. [42]

It is possible that a noteworthy return to orthodox Babylonian religion, following early attempts by Nabonidus to exalt the moon god Sîn over the traditional Babylonian supreme deity Marduk, can be attributed to Belshazzar. It may even have been Belshazzar who convinced his father to stay away from Babylonia in the first place, fearing a confrontation with the Babylonian oligarchy and clergy over his father's religious beliefs. [29] It is probable that Nabonidus, a reformer, and Belshazzar, apparently more religiously conservative, did not see eye to eye in religious matters. [43] Belshazzar appears to have worked to restore Marduk's status in his father's absence. [44] Upon Nabonidus's return to Babylon, Belshazzar was demoted from his administrative responsibilities and officials he had appointed were dismissed. Nabonidus also had certain inscriptions made during the period of the regency edited to add prayers urging Belshazzar and the people of Babylonia to accept and receive Sîn's blessing. [43]

Fate

Regardless of any potential animosity between Nabonidus and Belshazzar, Belshazzar retained the status of crown prince and intended successor, as a handful of documents still reference the "son of the king". [45] Otherwise his status and position after Nabonidus's return is never made clear. [46] [47] The sources also do not make Belshazzar's location clear, but it appears that he was stationed some distance away from Babylon, but that he also was no longer in Sippar, where he had stationed himself in 546 BC out of fear of Cyrus. One possibility, suggested by Paul-Alain Beaulieu, is that Belshazzar was put in charge of Babylonia's defense and was moving with the army along the northern and eastern border. [45]

Belshazzar partook in Babylon's defense against the invasion by Cyrus the Great in 539 BC. After a decisive victory at the battle of Opis, the Persian army, on 12 October, [48] led by Ugbaru, entered Babylon without a fight. [49] The last tablet dated to Nabonidus's reign is from Uruk and is dated to 13 October, which is considered the end date of his reign. [48] Nabonidus was captured and possibly exiled to Carmania. Belshazzar's fate is not known, since none of the sources record it. [50] It is often assumed that Belshazzar was killed by the Persians at Babylon when the city fell, on 12 October. [49] [51] [52] He may have alternatively been killed already at the battle of Opis, [1] captured and executed, or exiled together with his father. [50]

Legacy

Portrayal in the Book of Daniel

Rembrandt's depiction of the biblical account of Belshazzar seeing "the writing on the wall" Rembrandt-Belsazar.jpg
Rembrandt's depiction of the biblical account of Belshazzar seeing "the writing on the wall"

In the Book of Daniel, Belshazzar (Hebrew : בֵּלְשַׁאצַּר, Bēlšaʾṣṣar) [1] plays a significant role in the tale of Belshazzar's feast, a variation on the story of Nebuchadnezzar's madness showing what happens when a king does not repent. [53] During a feast, Babylonians eat and drink from the holy vessels of Yahweh's temple, and "king" Belshazzar sees a hand writing the words mene, mene, tekel, upharsin on a wall. [54] Daniel interprets the writing as a judgment from Yahweh, the god of Israel, foretelling the fall of Babylon. [55] Daniel tells Belshazzar that because he has not given honor to God, his kingdom will be given to the Medes and Persians. [54] Belshazzar is killed that night, and Darius the Mede takes the kingdom. [56]

Depiction of Belshazzar seeing "the writing on the wall" by Adolf Hult (1919) Bible primer, Old Testament, for use in the primary department of Sunday schools (1919) (14595449009).jpg
Depiction of Belshazzar seeing "the writing on the wall" by Adolf Hult (1919)

The broad consensus among scholars is that the Book of Daniel was compiled shortly after the Maccabean Revolt in the 160s BC. [7] The story of Belshazzar's feast is historical fiction, and several details are not consistent with historical facts. [5] [6] Belshazzar is portrayed as the king of Babylon and "son" of Nebuchadnezzar, though he was actually the son of Nabonidus—one of Nebuchadnezzar's successors—and he never became king in his own right, nor did he lead the religious festivals as the king was required to do. [6] In the story, the conqueror who inherits Babylon is Darius the Mede, but no such individual is known to history, and the invaders were actually Persians. [6] This is typical of the "tale of court contest" in which historical accuracy is not an essential element. [57]

Portrayal in later Jewish tradition

In the Book of Daniel, Belshazzar is not malevolent (he rewards Daniel and raises him to high office). [8] The later authors of the Talmud and the Midrash emphasize the tyrannous oppression of his Jewish subjects, with several passages in the Prophets interpreted as referring to him and his predecessors. For example, in the passage, "As if a man did flee from a lion, and a bear met him" (Amos 5:19 ), the lion is said to represent Nebuchadnezzar, and the bear, equally ferocious if not equally courageous, is Belshazzar. The Babylonian kings are often mentioned together as forming a succession of impious and tyrannical monarchs who oppressed Israel and were therefore foredoomed to disgrace and destruction. Isaiah 14:22 , "And I will rise up against them, saith the Lord of hosts, and cut off from Babylon name and remnant and son and grandchild, saith the Lord", is applied to the trio: "Name" to Nebuchadnezzar, "remnant" to Amel-Marduk, "son" to Belshazzar, and "grandchild" Vashti (ib.). The command given to Abraham to cut in pieces three heifers (Genesis 15:9 ) as a part of the covenant established between him and his God was thus elucidated as symbolizing Babylonia, which gave rise to three kings, Nebuchadnezzar, Amel-Marduk, and Belshazzar, whose doom is prefigured by this act of "cutting to pieces" (Midrash Genesis Rabbah xliv.). [58]

The Midrash literature enters into the details of Belshazzar's death. Thus the later tradition states that Cyrus and Darius were employed as doorkeepers of the royal palace. Belshazzar, being greatly alarmed at the mysterious handwriting on the wall, and apprehending that someone in disguise might enter the palace with murderous intent, ordered his doorkeepers to behead anyone who attempted to force an entrance that night, even though such person should claim to be the king himself. Belshazzar, overcome by sickness, left the palace unobserved during the night through a rear exit. On his return, the doorkeepers refused to admit him. In vain did he pled that he was the king. They said, "Has not the king ordered us to put to death anyone who attempts to enter the palace, though he claims to be the king himself?" Suiting the action to the word, Cyrus and Darius grasped a heavy ornament forming part of a candelabrum, and with it shattered the skull of their royal master (Shir ha-Shirim Rabbah 3:4). [58]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chaldea</span> Small Semitic nation of ancient Mesopotamia

Chaldea was a small country that existed between the late 10th or early 9th and mid-6th centuries BC, after which the country and its people were absorbed and assimilated into the indigenous population of Babylonia. Semitic-speaking, it was located in the marshy land of the far southeastern corner of Mesopotamia and briefly came to rule Babylon. The Hebrew Bible uses the term כשדים (Kaśdim) and this is translated as Chaldaeans in the Greek Old Testament, although there is some dispute as to whether Kasdim in fact means Chaldean or refers to the south Mesopotamian Kaldu.

The 6th century BC started on the first day of 600 BC and ended on the last day of 501 BC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Babylonia</span> Ancient Akkadian region in Mesopotamia

Babylonia was an ancient Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in the city of Babylon in central-southern Mesopotamia. It emerged as an Akkadian populated but Amorite-ruled state c. 1894 BC. During the reign of Hammurabi and afterwards, Babylonia was retrospectively called "the country of Akkad", a deliberate archaism in reference to the previous glory of the Akkadian Empire. It was often involved in rivalry with the older ethno-linguistically related state of Assyria in the north of Mesopotamia and Elam to the east in Ancient Iran. Babylonia briefly became the major power in the region after Hammurabi created a short-lived empire, succeeding the earlier Akkadian Empire, Third Dynasty of Ur, and Old Assyrian Empire. The Babylonian Empire rapidly fell apart after the death of Hammurabi and reverted to a small kingdom centered around the city of Babylon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nebuchadnezzar II</span> King of Babylon from 605 to 562 BC

Nebuchadnezzar II, also spelled Nebuchadrezzar II, was the second Neo-Babylonian emperor, ruling from the death of his father Nabopolassar in 605 BC to his own death in 562 BC. Historically known as Nebuchadnezzar the Great, he is typically regarded as the empire's greatest king. Nebuchadnezzar remains famous for his military campaigns in the Levant, for his construction projects in his capital, Babylon, including the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, and for the role he plays in Jewish history. Ruling for 43 years, Nebuchadnezzar was the longest-reigning king of the Babylonian dynasty. By the time of his death, he was among the most powerful rulers in the world.

Neriglissar was the fourth king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, ruling from his usurpation of the throne in 560 BC to his death in 556 BC. Though unrelated to previous Babylonian kings, possibly being of Aramean ancestry, Neriglissar was a prominent official and general in the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II and became even more influential through marrying one of Nebuchadnezzar's daughters, possibly Kashshaya.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nabopolassar</span> Founder and first king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire

Nabopolassar was the founder and first king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, ruling from his coronation as king of Babylon in 626 BC to his death in 605 BC. Though initially only aimed at restoring and securing the independence of Babylonia, Nabopolassar's uprising against the Neo-Assyrian Empire, which had ruled Babylonia for more than a century, eventually led to the complete destruction of the Assyrian Empire and the rise of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in its place.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nabonidus</span> Last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (r. 556–539 BC)

Nabonidus was the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, ruling from 556 BC to the fall of Babylon to the Achaemenian Empire under Cyrus the Great in 539 BC. Nabonidus was the last native ruler of ancient Mesopotamia, the end of his reign marking the end of thousands of years of Sumero-Akkadian states, kingdoms and empires. He was also the last independent king of Babylon. Regarded as one of the most vibrant and individualistic rulers of his time, Nabonidus is characterised by some scholars as an unorthodox religious reformer and as the first archaeologist.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amel-Marduk</span> Babylonian king

Amel-Marduk, also known as Awil-Marduk, or under the biblical rendition of his name, Evil-Merodach, was the third king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, ruling from 562 BC until his overthrow and murder in 560 BC. He was the successor of Nebuchadnezzar II. On account of the small number of surviving cuneiform sources, little is known of Amel-Marduk's reign and actions as king.

Labashi-Marduk was the fifth and penultimate king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, ruling in 556 BC. He was the son and successor of Neriglissar. Though classical authors such as Berossus wrote that Labashi-Marduk was just a child when he became king, Babylonian documents indicate that he had been in charge of his own affairs before his rise to the throne, suggesting he was an adult, though possibly still relatively young.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cyrus Cylinder</span> Ancient clay cylinder with Akkadian cuneiform script

The Cyrus Cylinder is an ancient clay cylinder, now broken into several pieces, on which is written an Achaemenid royal inscription in Akkadian cuneiform script in the name of Persian king Cyrus the Great. It dates from the 6th century BC and was discovered in the ruins of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Babylon in 1879. It is currently in the possession of the British Museum. It was created and used as a foundation deposit following the Persian conquest of Babylon in 539 BC, when the Neo-Babylonian Empire was invaded by Cyrus and incorporated into his Persian Empire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neo-Babylonian Empire</span> Ancient Mesopotamian empire (626 BCE–539 BCE)

The Neo-Babylonian Empire or Second Babylonian Empire, historically known as the Chaldean Empire, was the last polity ruled by monarchs native to Mesopotamia. Beginning with the coronation of Nabopolassar as the King of Babylon in 626 BC and being firmly established through the fall of the Assyrian Empire in 612 BC, the Neo-Babylonian Empire was conquered by the Achaemenid Persian Empire in 539 BC, marking the collapse of the Chaldean dynasty less than a century after its founding.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chaldean dynasty</span> Kings of Babylon, 626 BC – 539 BC

The Chaldean dynasty, also known as the Neo-Babylonian dynasty and enumerated as Dynasty X of Babylon, was the ruling dynasty of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, ruling as kings of Babylon from the ascent of Nabopolassar in 626 BC to the fall of Babylon in 539 BC. The dynasty, as connected to Nabopolassar through descent, was deposed in 560 BC by the Aramean official Neriglissar, though he was connected to the Chaldean kings through marriage and his son and successor, Labashi-Marduk, might have reintroduced the bloodline to the throne. The final Neo-Babylonian king, Nabonidus, was genealogically unconnected to the previous kings, but might, like Neriglissar, also have been connected to the dynasty through marriage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cylinders of Nabonidus</span>

The Cylinders of Nabonidus refers to cuneiform inscriptions of king Nabonidus of Babylonia. These inscriptions were made on clay cylinders. They include the Nabonidus Cylinder from Sippar, and the Nabonidus Cylinders from Ur, four in number.

The Battle of Opis was the last major military engagement between the Achaemenid Persian Empire and the Neo-Babylonian Empire, which took place in September 539 BC, during the Persian invasion of Mesopotamia. At the time, Babylonia was the last major power in Western Asia that was not yet under Persian control. The battle was fought in or near the strategic riverside city of Opis, located north of the capital city of Babylon in modern-day Iraq, and resulted in a decisive victory for Persia. Shortly afterwards, the Babylonian city of Sippar surrendered to Persian forces, who then supposedly entered Babylon without facing any further resistance. The Persian king Cyrus the Great was subsequently proclaimed as the king of Babylonia and its subject territories, thus ending its independence and incorporating the entirety of the fallen Neo-Babylonian Empire into the greater Achaemenid Empire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fall of Babylon</span> End of the Neo-Babylonian Empire

The fall of Babylon was the decisive event that marked the total defeat of the Neo-Babylonian Empire to the Achaemenid Persian Empire in 539 BCE.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nitocris of Babylon</span>

Nitocris of Babylon is an otherwise unknown queen regnant of Babylon described by Herodotus in his Histories. According to Histories of Herodotus, among sovereigns of Babylon two were women, Semiramis and Nitocris. Nitocris is credited by Herodotus with various building projects in Babylon. She is also said to have tricked Darius I by placing her tomb above a gate so that no Persian could pass below and enter through. According to the account, Darius was lured in by a mysterious inscription that served as a trap for greedy kings. According to Herodotus she was the wife of Nabonidus against whose son an expedition was launched by Cyrus the Great. Dougherty and Beaulieu identify the son as Belshazzar.

Ennigaldi-Nanna, also known as Bel-Shalti-Nanna and commonly called just Ennigaldi, was a princess of the Neo-Babylonian Empire and high priestess (entu) of Ur. As the first entu in six centuries, serving as the "human wife" of the moon-god Sin, Ennigaldi held large religious and political power. She is most famous today for founding a museum in Ur c. 530 BC. Ennigaldi's museum showcased cataloged and labelled artifacts from the preceding 1,500 years of Mesopotamian history and is often considered to have been the first museum in world history.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Harran Stela</span> Babylonian stela ~540BC

The Harran Stela was discovered in 1956 in the ruins of Harran, in what is now southeast Turkey. It consists of two parts, both of which show, at the top, Nabonidus worshipping symbols of the Sun, Ishtar, and the moon-god Sin. The Stela was likely composed between 542–540 BC.

Nabu-balatsu-iqbi was the father of the Neo-Babylonian king Nabonidus. A mysterious figure, Nabu-balatsu-iqbi is only referenced in Nabonidus's own inscriptions, with no other record of his existence or status.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Chavalas 2000, p. 164.
  2. ↑ Glassner 2004, p. 232.
  3. ↑ Shea 1988, p. 75.
  4. ↑ Collins 1984, p. 41.
  5. 1 2 Laughlin 1990, p. 95.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Seow 2003, pp. 4–6.
  7. 1 2 Collins 2002, p. 2.
  8. 1 2 Seow 2003, p. 7.
  9. ↑ Briant 2002, p. 32.
  10. ↑ Wiseman 1991, p. 244.
  11. ↑ Shea 1982, pp. 137–138.
  12. 1 2 Waters 2014, p. 43.
  13. 1 2 Beaulieu 1989, p. 172.
  14. ↑ Beaulieu 1989, pp. 87–88.
  15. ↑ Wiseman 1991, p. 243.
  16. ↑ Beaulieu 2006, p. 139.
  17. ↑ Beaulieu 1989, p. 89.
  18. ↑ Beaulieu 1989, p. 91.
  19. ↑ Albertz 2003, p. 63.
  20. 1 2 Beaulieu 1989, p. 92.
  21. ↑ Beaulieu 1989, p. 95.
  22. 1 2 Beaulieu 1989, p. 155.
  23. ↑ Beaulieu 1989, p. 98.
  24. ↑ Beaulieu 1989, pp. 168–169.
  25. 1 2 Wiseman 1991, p. 248.
  26. ↑ Beaulieu 1989, p. 165.
  27. ↑ Wiseman 1991, p. 247.
  28. ↑ Beaulieu 1989, p. 171.
  29. 1 2 3 Beaulieu 1989, p. 63.
  30. ↑ Beaulieu 1989, pp. 63, 154.
  31. 1 2 3 4 Beaulieu 1989, p. 186.
  32. ↑ Beaulieu 1989, p. 160.
  33. ↑ Beaulieu 1989, p. 192.
  34. 1 2 Beaulieu 1989, p. 187.
  35. 1 2 Beaulieu 1989, p. 188.
  36. ↑ Beaulieu 1989, p. 158.
  37. ↑ Beaulieu 1989, pp. 188–190.
  38. ↑ Beaulieu 1989, p. 190.
  39. ↑ Beaulieu 1989, pp. 190–191.
  40. ↑ Beaulieu 1989, pp. 193–196.
  41. ↑ Beaulieu 1989, pp. 197–198.
  42. ↑ Beaulieu 1989, pp. 198–201.
  43. 1 2 Beaulieu 1989, p. 64.
  44. ↑ Henze 1999, p. 61.
  45. 1 2 Beaulieu 1989, pp. 204–205.
  46. ↑ Briant 2002, p. 41–42.
  47. ↑ Newsom & Breed 2014, p. 164.
  48. 1 2 Beaulieu 1989, p. 230.
  49. 1 2 Wiseman 1991, p. 249.
  50. 1 2 Weiershäuser & Novotny 2020, p. 13.
  51. ↑ Beaulieu 1989, p. 231.
  52. ↑ Albertz 2003, p. 69–70.
  53. ↑ Collins 1984, p. 70.
  54. 1 2 Seow 2003, pp. 75.
  55. ↑ Collins 1984, p. 67.
  56. ↑ Albertz 2003, pp. 18–19.
  57. ↑ Collins 1984, p. 41,67.
  58. 1 2 PD-icon.svg  Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "Belshazzar". The Jewish Encyclopedia . New York: Funk & Wagnalls.

Bibliography

PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "Belshazzar". The Jewish Encyclopedia . New York: Funk & Wagnalls.

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.