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Sir Edmund Taylor Whittaker was a British mathematician, physicist, historian of science, and philosopher who authored three titles that remain in circulation over a century after their initial publications. His bibliography includes several books and over one hundred published papers on a variety of subjects, including mathematics, astronomy, mathematical physics, theoretical physics, philosophy, and theism. Whittaker's bibliography in the Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society categorises his publications into three categories: books and monographs, maths and physics articles, and biographical articles; the bibliography excludes works published in popular magazines like Scientific American . [1] The bibliography includes eleven total books and monographs, fifty-six maths and physics articles, thirty-five philosophy and history articles, and twenty-one biographical articles. [1] In the bibliography compiled by William Hunter McCrea in 1957, there are thirteen books and monographs and the same journal articles; McCrea counts all three volumes of A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity as separate books and excludes the same papers. [2] Whittaker's contributions to Scientific American include two book reviews and a popular article on mathematics.
John Lighton Synge reviewed ten of Whittaker's papers when he wrote about Whittaker's contributions to electromagnetism and general relativity. [3] Among other tributes as part of the same memorial volume of the Proceedings of the Edinburgh Mathematical Society , George Frederick James Temple wrote about Whittaker's work on harmonic functions, and Alexander Aitken wrote about Whittaker's work on algebra and numerical analysis. Whittaker also published several biographical articles, including one for Albert Einstein written just a few months before his death.
Whittaker wrote three scientific treatises that were highly influential in their fields, A Course of Modern Analysis , Analytical Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies , and The Calculus of Observations. [4] In 1956, Gerald James Whitrow stated that two of these books, Modern Analysis and Analytical Dynamics, were not only required reading for British mathematicians but were regarded as fundamental components of their personal libraries. [5] Despite the success of these textbooks, the second edition of A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity has been called Whittaker's magnum opus. [6] [5] [7] Due to the title's popularity, William Hunter McCrea predicted that future readers would have a hard time acknowledging it was the result of just "a few years at both ends of a career of the highest distinction in other pursuits." [8] Whittaker also wrote The theory of optical instruments during his time as Royal Astronomer of Ireland and wrote several other books on various subjects throughout his career. [4]
Whittaker was the original author of the textbook A Course of Modern Analysis , first published in 1902. [publication 1] The book was reviewed by George Ballard Mathews, [9] Arthur Stafford Hathaway, [10] and Maxime Bôcher, [11] among others. The book's later editions were written in collaboration with Whittaker's former student George Neville Watson, resulting in the textbook taking the famous colloquial name Whittaker & Watson, published in 1915, [publication 2] 1920, [publication 3] and 1927. [publication 4] Reviewers of the book's later editions include Philip Jourdain, [12] Eric Harold Neville, [13] and Dorothy Maud Wrinch. [14] The book is subtitled an introduction to the general theory of infinite processes and of analytic functions; with an account of the principal transcendental functions and is a classic textbook in mathematical analysis. [15]
Whittaker's second major work, A Treatise on the Analytical Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies, was first published in 1904 [publication 5] and quickly became a classic textbook in its subject. [16] The book went through four editions, published in 1917, [publication 6] 1927, [publication 7] and 1937. [publication 8] It has remained in circulation for over a hundred years. [16] The book represented the forefront of development at the time of publication; many reviewers noted it contained material otherwise non-existent in the English language. [16] The book has received acclaim from sources other than book reviews as well, including physicist Victor Lenzen, who said in 1952 that the book was "still the best exposition of the subject on the highest possible level". [17] One hundred and ten years after its initial publication, a 2014 "biography" of the book's development noted that the book remained influential as more than a "historical document". [16]
Whittaker's third major work, A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity, From the Age of Descartes to the Close of the Nineteenth Century , was published in 1910. [publication 9] The book gives a detailed account of the history of electromagnetism and aether theories from René Descartes to Hendrik Lorentz and Albert Einstein, including the contributions of Hermann Minkowski and a chapter each devoted to Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell. The book was well received and is an authoritative reference work in the history of physics; the title established Whittaker as a respected historian of science. [18] Pending the release of a second edition, the book remained out of print for many years, though it is now free to be reprinted in the United States, as it qualifies as public domain. Dover Publications released a reprint of the book in 1989. [publication 10] Along with several others, Edwin Bidwell Wilson reviewed the treatise in 1913. [19]
Whittaker's fourth major work, The Calculus of Observations a Treatise on Numerical Analysis, coauthored with George Robinson, [publication 11] was a pioneering textbook in numerical analysis that was originally published in 1923 and provides an introduction to methods of practical computation. [20] The first four chapters, on interpolation, were published separately under A Short Course in Interpolation, [publication 12] in 1924. [21] The book went through four total editions, [publication 13] [publication 14] with the fourth in 1944. [publication 15] The book received positive reviews upon its initial release. [22] It was reviewed by William Fleetwood Sheppard, [21] [23] Lewis Fry Richardson, [24] and Jack Howlett, [25] among others. [26] [27] [28] [29] Several of the book's reviewers found that it was advanced and intended mostly for mathematicians. [21] [28] [24] Some reviewers also noted that the book was the first to be devoted fully to the subject in the English language. [21] [29] Forty-three years after its initial publication, Jack Howlett reviewed a reprint of the fourth edition by Dover Publications [publication 16] in 1969 in a comparison of the book with two newer works. [25] He wrote that "one can hardly call it a modern book" and noted that the book had changed relatively little since its original print in 1924 and from the lectures that Whittaker delivered at the Edinburgh Mathematical Laboratory between 1913 and 1923. [25] He went on to remark that there are only a few useful chapters in the book concerning the calculus of finite differences and its applications, including interpolation and difference formulae, but that the rest of the book seemed "completely outmoded". [25]
Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington, one of Whittaker's former students, held philosophical views similar to Whittaker's. [30] [31] At the end of his career, Whittaker was influenced by the philosophical ideas Eddington had advocated for and, in addition to editing the latter's Fundamental Theory, he published several articles and books exploring the topic. [32] Whittaker's presentation at the 1947 Tarner Lecture was published as From Euclid to Eddington by the Cambridge University Press and his other book on the topic, Eddington's principle in the philosophy of science, was published two years later.
Whittaker edited Arthur Eddington's Fundamental Theory , which was published posthumously in 1946 by the Cambridge University Press. [publication 17] Eddington died in November 1944 and Whittaker was given the task of editing and publishing the book, which was nearly complete. [32] The book received several reviews and responses, [33] including a review by William Hunter McCrea [34] and Clive W. Kilmister. [35] Kilmister later wrote a book on the topic, titled Eddington's search for a fundamental theory, which was published by Cambridge University Press in 1994, [36] and was itself reviewed by David Kaiser, [37] among others. [38] [39] [40]
Whittaker's philosophy book From Euclid to Eddington : A study of the conceptions of the external world was published in 1949 by the Cambridge University Press. [publication 18] The book is a published lecture originating from the 1947 Tarner Lecture at Trinity College, Cambridge. [32] The volume recounts the history of the theories of natural philosophy beginning with Euclid and stretching to Eddington, including the philosophical ideas of Plato, Aristotle, and Einstein. [32] The original edition of the book received reviews from Peter Bergmann, [41] Edward Arthur Milne, [42] and Israel Monroe Levitt. [43] A 1960 reprint of the book by Dover Publications has also received reviews. [44] [45]
Whittaker spoke at the annual Arthur Stanley Eddington Memorial Lecture in 1952, which was subsequently published by American Scientist [publication 19] and Cambridge University Press. [publication 20] In the book's preface, Whittaker articulates Eddington's principle as "all the quantitative propositions of physics… may be deduced by logical reasoning from qualitative assertions". [30] [31] One reviewer noted some caveats to the interpretation and stated that Eddington would not necessarily have been satisfied with this wording. [31] The work expounded on the principle, traced its development to Gottfried Leibniz, discussed its mathematical basis, and addresses potential objections. [30] Whittaker also describes Eddington's views on universal constants. and discusses their connection to the philosophy of religion. [30] William Hunter McCrea [30] and Thomas Cowling [31] reviewed the work in 1952.
Whittaker published an extended and revised edition of his Theories of Aether in two volumes, with volume one in 1951 [publication 21] and the second in 1953. [publication 22] Notwithstanding a notorious controversy on Whitaker's views on the history of special relativity, covered in volume two of the second edition, the books are considered authoritative references on the history of classical electromagnetism [46] as well as classic books in the history of physics. [47] The first volume, subtitled the classical theories, serves as a revised and updated edition of the original 1910 book. [48] Among others, Arthur Mannering Tyndall, [49] Carl Eckart, [50] Victor Lenzen, [51] William Hunter McCrea, [18] Julius Sumner Miller, [52] John Lighton Synge, [53] and Stephen Toulmin [54] reviewed the book. The second volume extended this work covering the years 1900 to 1926, including the early development of special relativity, general relativity, old quantum theory, and quantum mechanics. Among others, Max Born, [55] Freeman Dyson, [56] Rolf Hagedorn, [57] and Percy Williams Bridgman [58] reviewed the book. Whittaker's role in the relativity priority dispute centres on chapter two of the second volume, where he claims that Lorentz and Poincare had developed the theory of relativity before Einstein. Due to the controversy this sparked, the second volume is cited far less than the first volume and first edition, except in connection with the priority dispute. [59]
Title | Subject | Year | Publication [2] [1] | Identifier | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Report on the progress of the solution of the problem of three bodies | Physics—three-body problem | 1899 | British Association for the Advancement of Science [publication 23] | Became the core of Whittaker's 1902 A Treatise on the Analytical Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies . | |
The Theory of Optical Instruments Cambridge Tracts in Mathematics, No. 7 | Physics—optics | 1907 | Cambridge University Press [publication 24] | OCLC 976959487 | Published review [60] |
Prinzipien der Störungstheorie und allgemeine Theorie der Bahnkurven in dynamischen Problemen [Principles of perturbation theory and general theory of trajectories in dynamic problem] | Mathematics | 1912 | Klein's Encyclopedia of Mathematical Sciences [publication 25] | In German | |
Introduction to a reprint of Isaac Newton's Opticks | History | 1931 | Bell and Sons [publication 26] | OCLC 1164453 | Foreword written by Albert Einstein |
The Beginning and End of the World Delivered before the University of Durham at King's college, Newcastle upon Tyne in February 1942 Riddell Memorial Lecture of 1942 | Theology | 1943 | Oxford University Press [publication 27] | OCLC 702585376 | Published reviews [61] [62] |
Space and Spirit: Theories of the Universe and the Arguments for the Existence of God | Theology | 1946 | Thomas Nelson [publication 28] | ISBN 978-1-258-91699-2 | Published reviews [63] [64] [65] |
The modern approach to Descartes' problem; the relation of the mathematical and physical sciences to philosophy | Philosophy—philosophy of science | 1948 | Thomas Nelson [publication 29] | OCLC 4732609 | Published reviews [66] [67] |
Whittaker wrote many maths, physics, and astronomy articles over his career in addition to many others in subjects like history, philosophy, and theism. He also wrote several popular articles in magazines such as Scientific American as well as several book reviews. Whittaker wrote over twenty biographical articles and obituaries throughout his life, including one for Albert Einstein just a few months before his own death. [68] John Lighton Synge reviewed ten of Whittaker's papers when he wrote about Whittaker's contributions to electromagnetism and general relativity. [3] Among other tributes as part of the same memorial volume of the Proceedings of the Edinburgh Mathematical Society , George Frederick James Temple wrote about Whittaker's work on harmonic functions, and Alexander Aitken wrote about his work on algebra and numerical analysis.
Title | Date | Publication [2] [1] | Identifier | Topic and Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
"Newton's work on optics" | 1927 | The Mathematical Association [publication 87] | The Mathematical Association , p. 70, at Google Books | History of physics |
"The Outstanding Problems of Relativity" | September 1927 | Science Magazine [publication 88] | doi : 10.1126/science.66.1706.223 | Philosophy |
"The Outstanding Problems of Relativity" | September 1927 | Nature [publication 89] | doi : 10.1038/120368a0 | Philosophy |
"Eddington on the Nature of the World" | January 1929 | Nature [publication 90] | doi : 10.1038/123004a0 | Philosophy |
"What Is Energy?" | April 1929 | The Mathematical Gazette [publication 91] | doi : 10.2307/3606954 | Philosophy |
"Parallelism and teleparallelism in the newer theories of space" | January 1930 | J. London Math. Soc. [publication 92] | doi : 10.1112/jlms/s1-5.1.68 | Philosophy |
"Bishop Barnes and the mathematical theorists" | 1933 | Dublin Review [publication 93] | ||
"The new background: man and the universe" | 1935 | Philosophy. Originally published in (1934–1935) Year–book of the Univ. Catholic Societies Federation of Great Britain, 25–33 [2] | ||
"The relativity theory of protons and electrons" | 1937 | The Observatory [publication 94] | The Observatory , p. 14, at Google Books | |
"A chapter on religion" | 1937 | The Student [publication 95] | Theology | |
"The physical universe" | 1940 | Religion and Science [publication 96] | Theology | |
"The Hamiltonian revival" | 1940 | Math. Gaz. [publication 97] | doi : 10.2307/3605704 | There is published correspondence between Whittaker and Edward Arthur Milne over the paper. [publication 98] [publication 99] [publication 100] |
"Some disputed questions in the philosophy of the physical sciences" | May 1942 | Phil. Mag. [publication 101] | doi : 10.1080/14786444208520810 | Philosophy—Edington's Principle. [96] Published form of the annual address of the President to the Royal Society of Edinburgh 27 October 1941. |
"Aristotle, Newton, Einstein" | September 1943 | Science Magazine [publication 102] | doi : 10.1126/science.98.2542.249 | Part one of two. Published form of the annual address of the President to the Royal Society of Edinburgh 26 October 1942. The lecture was reviewed by C. D. Hardie Spring 1943. [97] |
"Aristotle, Newton, Einstein II" | September 1943 | Science Magazine [publication 103] | doi : 10.1126/science.98.2543.267 | Part two of two. Published form of the annual address of the President to the Royal Society of Edinburgh 26 October 1942. The lecture was reviewed by C. D. Hardie Spring 1943. [97] |
"The aether: past and present" | 1943 | Endeavour [publication 104] | History of the aether | |
"The earth, and the sun, from Copernicus to Galileo" | 1943 | Prisoners of War News [publication 105] (British Red Cross Society) | History of Solar System models | |
"Chance, freewill and necessity, in the scientific conception of the universe" | 1943 | Proc. Phys. Soc. [publication 106] | doi : 10.1088/0959-5309/55/6/303 | Determinism and free will. [98] Presented at the Twenty-seventh Guthrie Lecture on 18 May 1943. There was published correspondence over the theme of the work and a comparison to another lecture. [99] [100] [101] [publication 107] |
"The new physics and metaphysical materialism" | 1943 | Proc. Arist. Soc. [publication 108] | JSTOR 4544379 | Philosophy. Published Symposium, other speakers were Susan Stebbing, J. H. Jeans, and R. B. Braithwaite |
"The new algebras, and their significance for physics and philosophy" | December 1943 | Phil. Mag. [publication 109] | doi : 10.1080/14786444408520865 | Reviewed by Alonzo Church in June 1944. [102] |
"Old and new ideas of gravitation" | 1944 | Endeavour [publication 110] | History of physics | |
"The new physics and the philosophy of Catholics" | 1944 | The Month [publication 111] [publication 112] | Theology | |
"Spin in the universe" | 1945 | Royal Society of Edinburgh | Philosophy. Originally published in the 1945 Year Book of the Royal Society of Edinburgh pages 5–13 [2] The publication was the result of the annual presidential address to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, where Whittaker discussed the "spin of the universe" on 23 October 1944. The work was reviewed in Nature in May of the next year [103] | |
"The sequence of ideas in the discovery of quaternions" | 1945 | Proc. Royal Irish Acad. [publication 113] | JSTOR 20520633 | History of physics and mathematics |
"Eddington's theory of thee constants of nature" | October 1945 | The Mathematical Gazette [publication 114] | doi : 10.2307/3609461 | Philosophy |
"The mind behind material nature" | 1946 | The Listener [publication 115] | Philosophy and theism [104] Made the front cover of the weekly BBC magazine The Listener. [104] | |
"Whitehead's Collected Essays" | September 1947 | Nature [publication 116] | doi : 10.1038/160415a0 | Collected papers of Alfred North Whitehead. |
"The concept of nature, from Copernicus to Newton" | 1946 | Advanced Science [publication 117] | History of philosophy |
Title | Date | Publication | DOI | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
"Mathematics at the British Association" | October 1900 | Nature [publication 161] | doi : 10.1038/062561a0 | |
"Recent Researches on Space, Time, and Force" | 1910 | J. London Math. Soc. [publication 162] | Recent Researches on Space, Time, and Force | |
"Mathematics" | September 1950 | Scientific American [publication 163] | doi : 10.1038/scientificamerican0950-40 | Gives a short account of the state of mathematics at the time of publication; discusses mathematical logic and the Principia Mathematica , along with Giuseppe Peano, Kurt Gödel, and intuitionism. [107] |
"Religion and the nature of the universe" | June 1950 | The Listener [publication 164] | Philosophy and theism. [104] Made the front cover of the weekly BBC magazine The Listener . [104] A response to Fred Hoyle's series in the same magazine that was later published as The nature of the universe: a series of broadcast lectures in 1950. [104] | |
"Energy and Eternity" | October 1950 | American Vogue [publication 165] | Philosophy and theism. [104] Reprint of "Religion and the nature of the universe" originally published in The Listener . [104] | |
"Are there eternal truths?" | August 1952 | The Listener [publication 166] | Philosophy and theism. [104] Made the front cover of the weekly BBC magazine The Listener . [104] | |
"G. F. FitzGerald" | November 1953 | Scientific American [publication 167] | doi : 10.1038/scientificamerican1153-93 | |
"William Rowan Hamilton" | May 1954 | Scientific American [publication 168] | doi : 10.1038/scientificamerican0554-82 | Julius Sumner Miller published a response to the biography in August of the same year. [108] |
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington was an English astronomer, physicist, and mathematician. He was also a philosopher of science and a populariser of science. The Eddington limit, the natural limit to the luminosity of stars, or the radiation generated by accretion onto a compact object, is named in his honour.
Georges Henri Joseph Édouard Lemaître was a Belgian Catholic priest, theoretical physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and professor of physics at the Catholic University of Louvain. He was the first to theorize that the recession of nearby galaxies can be explained by an expanding universe, which was observationally confirmed soon afterwards by Edwin Hubble. He first derived "Hubble's law", now called the Hubble–Lemaître law by the IAU, and published the first estimation of the Hubble constant in 1927, two years before Hubble's article. Lemaître also proposed the "Big Bang theory" of the origin of the universe, calling it the "hypothesis of the primeval atom", and later calling it "the beginning of the world".
Sheila Scott Macintyre FRSE was a Scottish mathematician best known for her work on the Whittaker constant. Macintyre is also known for co-authoring a German–English mathematics dictionary with Edith Witte.
In astrophysics, the Eddington number, NEdd, is the number of protons in the observable universe. Eddington originally calculated it as about 1.57×1079; current estimates make it approximately 1080.
Sir Joseph Larmor was an Irish and British physicist and mathematician who made breakthroughs in the understanding of electricity, dynamics, thermodynamics, and the electron theory of matter. His most influential work was Aether and Matter, a theoretical physics book published in 1900.
Sir Edmund Taylor Whittaker was a British mathematician, physicist, and historian of science. Whittaker was a leading mathematical scholar of the early 20th-century who contributed widely to applied mathematics and was renowned for his research in mathematical physics and numerical analysis, including the theory of special functions, along with his contributions to astronomy, celestial mechanics, the history of physics, and digital signal processing.
A Course of Modern Analysis: an introduction to the general theory of infinite processes and of analytic functions; with an account of the principal transcendental functions is a landmark textbook on mathematical analysis written by Edmund T. Whittaker and George N. Watson, first published by Cambridge University Press in 1902. The first edition was Whittaker's alone, but later editions were co-authored with Watson.
Dinocaridida is a proposed fossil taxon of basal arthropods that flourished in the Cambrian period with occasional Ordovician and Devonian records. Characterized by a pair of frontal appendages and series of body flaps, the name of Dinocaridids refers to the suggested role of some of these members as the largest marine predators of their time. Dinocaridids are occasionally referred to as the 'AOPK group' by some literatures, as the group compose of Radiodonta, Opabiniidae, and the "gilled lobopodians" Pambdelurion and Kerygmachelidae. It is most likely paraphyletic, with Kerygmachelidae and Pambdelurion more basal than the clade compose of Opabiniidae, Radiodonta and other arthropods.
In mathematics, a Whittaker function is a special solution of Whittaker's equation, a modified form of the confluent hypergeometric equation introduced by Whittaker (1903) to make the formulas involving the solutions more symmetric. More generally, Jacquet (1966, 1967) introduced Whittaker functions of reductive groups over local fields, where the functions studied by Whittaker are essentially the case where the local field is the real numbers and the group is SL2(R).
Edmund Clifton Stoner FRS was a British theoretical physicist. He is principally known for his work on the origin and nature of itinerant ferromagnetism, including the collective electron theory of ferromagnetism and the Stoner criterion for ferromagnetism. Stoner made significant contributions to the electron configurations in the periodic table.
George Ballard Mathews, FRS was an English mathematician.
John Allan Broun FRS was a Scottish scientist with interests in magnetism, particularly of the earth, and meteorology. Broun studied in Edinburgh University and worked at the observatory in Makerstoun from 1842 to 1849 before moving to India to work in the Kingdom of Travancore. He continued his studies on geo-magnetism in India and was involved in setting up observatories there apart from managing the Napier Museum in Trivandrum. One of the fundamental discoveries he made was that the Earth loses or gains magnetic intensity not locally, but as a whole. He also found that solar activity causes magnetic disturbances.
The following list of publications by Richard Dawkins is a chronological list of papers, articles, essays and books published by British ethologist and evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins.
Adrian Edmund Gill FRS was an Australian meteorologist and oceanographer best known for his textbook Atmosphere-Ocean Dynamics. Gill was born in Melbourne, Australia, and worked at Cambridge, serving as Senior Research Fellow from 1963 to 1984. His father was Edmund Gill, geologist, palaeontologist and curator at the National Museum of Victoria.
Prof Edward Lindsay Ince FRSE was a British mathematician who worked on differential equations, especially those with periodic coefficients such as the Mathieu equation and the Lamé equation. He introduced the Ince equation, a generalization of the Mathieu equation.
The Ronald Fisher bibliography contains the works published by the English statistician and biologist Ronald Fisher (1890–1962).
A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity is any of three books written by British mathematician Sir Edmund Taylor Whittaker FRS FRSE on the history of electromagnetic theory, covering the development of classical electromagnetism, optics, and aether theories. The book's first edition, subtitled from the Age of Descartes to the Close of the Nineteenth Century, was published in 1910 by Longmans, Green. The book covers the history of aether theories and the development of electromagnetic theory up to the 20th century. A second, extended and revised, edition consisting of two volumes was released in the early 1950s by Thomas Nelson, expanding the book's scope to include the first quarter of the 20th century. The first volume, subtitled The Classical Theories, was published in 1951 and served as a revised and updated edition to the first book. The second volume, subtitled The Modern Theories (1900–1926), was published two years later in 1953, extended this work covering the years 1900 to 1926. Notwithstanding a notorious controversy on Whittaker's views on the history of special relativity, covered in volume two of the second edition, the books are considered authoritative references on the history of electricity and magnetism as well as classics in the history of physics.
A Treatise on the Analytical Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies is a treatise and textbook on analytical dynamics by British mathematician Sir Edmund Taylor Whittaker. Initially published in 1904 by the Cambridge University Press, the book focuses heavily on the three-body problem and has since gone through four editions and has been translated to German and Russian. Considered a landmark book in English mathematics and physics, the treatise presented what was the state-of-the-art at the time of publication and, remaining in print for more than a hundred years, it is considered a classic textbook in the subject. In addition to the original editions published in 1904, 1917, 1927, and 1937, a reprint of the fourth edition was released in 1989 with a new foreword by William Hunter McCrea.
Max Born was a widely influential German physicist and mathematician who was awarded the 1954 Nobel Prize in Physics for his pivotal role in the development of quantum mechanics. Born won the prize primarily for his contributions to the statistical interpretation of the wave function, though he is known for his work in several areas of quantum mechanics as well as solid-state physics, optics, and special relativity. Born's entry in the Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society included thirty books and 330 papers.
Rosa Margaret Morris was a Welsh applied mathematician, working in potential theory and aerodynamics. When she was 23, her research and examination results made national news. In her later career, she taught at the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, where she co-authored a successful textbook on Mathematical Methods of Physics and became one of the first female Heads of School of Mathematics in the United Kingdom.
The story of the development of our understanding of electricity and magnetism is, of course, much longer and richer than the mention of a few names from one century would indicate. For a detailed account of the fascinating history, the reader should consult the authoritative volumes by Whittaker