Digital privacy

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Digital privacy is often used in contexts that promote advocacy on behalf of individual and consumer privacy rights in e-services and is typically used in opposition to the business practices of many e-marketers, businesses, and companies to collect and use such information and data. [1] [2] Digital privacy, a crucial aspect of modern online interactions and services, can be defined under three sub-related categories: information privacy, communication privacy, and individual privacy. [3]

Contents

Digital privacy has increasingly become a topic of interest as information and data shared over the social web have continued to become more and more commodified; social media users are now considered unpaid "digital labors", as one pays for "free" e-services through the loss of their privacy. [4] For example, between 2005 and 2011, the change in levels of disclosure for different profile items on Facebook shows that, over the years, people have wanted to keep more information private. [5] Observing the seven-year span, Facebook gained a profit of $100 billion through the collection and sharing of their users' data with third-party advertisers. [4]

The more a user shares on social networks, the more privacy is lost. All of the information and data one shares is connected to clusters of similar information. As the user continues to share their productive expression, it gets matched with the respective cluster, and their speech and expression are no longer only in the possession of them or of their social circle. This can be seen as a consequence of building social capital. As people create new and diverse ties on social networks, data becomes linked. This decrease in privacy continues until bundling appears (when the ties become strong and the network more homogeneous). [6]

As digital privacy concerns grow, regulatory approaches have emerged to protect user data across various sectors. In the United States, privacy regulation has traditionally been sector-based, with different industries having their own rules. Since the 1970s, laws have covered areas like financial services, healthcare, and education. However, recent efforts, such as the American Data Privacy and Protection Act of 2022 (ADPPA), signal a shift toward a comprehensive privacy framework. This mirrors the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), which provides uniform privacy rules across all sectors. [7]

A key challenge in digital privacy regulation is tailoring data protection rules for specific industries, particularly in digital spaces like social media, search engines, and mobile apps, where data collection practices often exceed existing laws. [Federal Trade Commission (FTC)] has played a central role in addressing these concerns, with its growing expertise in the digital landscape. As the digital economy evolves, there is increasing pressure for stronger privacy laws that balance privacy protection with competition. Advocates argue that this balance is necessary to protect users from exploitation by companies with massive data collection capabilities.

Types of privacy

Information privacy

In the context of digital privacy, information privacy is the idea that individuals should have the freedom to determine how their digital information is collected and used. This is particularly relevant for personally identifiable information.

The concept of information privacy has evolved in parallel to the evolution of the field of Information Technology (IT). The rise of networking and computing led to the dramatic change in the ways of information exchange. The baseline for this concept was put forward in the late 1940s, and the third era of privacy development began in the 1990s. [8]

The European Union has various privacy laws that dictate how information may be collected and used by companies. Some of those laws are written to give agency to the preferences of individuals/consumers in how their data is used. The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) is an example of this. In other places, like in the United States, privacy law is argued by some to be less developed in this regard. [9] By example, some legislation, or lack thereof, allow companies to self-regulate their collection and dissemination practices of consumer information.

It is a common practice in some countries to oblige companies and websites to provide users with notice and ask for the consent to collect their data and/or track activity. [10] However, the specifics of this procedure usually are not properly regulated, which allows websites to manipulate users into obtaining consent by reducing the visibility of the notice, the frequency of requests for consent, etc. This affects the power dynamics between companies and consumers, perceived risks, and jeopardizes the right to privacy in the collection of personal data.

One such example of privacy policies being called into question would be on the social media app TikTok. While collecting user data normally requires permission from the user, the app is known to be quite insistent on the user sharing the data, at least in comparison to other apps such as Facebook. Since TikTok is capable of running without the user's personal data being gathered, this has raised suspicions about the app being used for data harvesting by the government. [11]

Public Perception of Data Privacy Risks and Regulation

A 2023 Pew Research study highlights growing concerns among Americans about data privacy. [12] 81% are worried about how companies use their personal data, and 71% share similar concerns about government data usage. Many feel they lack control over their data, with 73% stating they have little control over how companies collect their information and 79% feeling the same about government data collection.

The report also reveals that a significant portion of Americans are confused about data usage. 77% do not understand how the government uses their data, and 67% feel similarly about companies. Additionally, there is strong support for more government regulation, with 72% of Americans believing that companies should face more oversight regarding personal information handling.

Despite concerns, Americans remain skeptical about their ability to protect their data. While 78% trust themselves to make decisions about online privacy, 61% feel their actions won’t make a significant impact. Racial and ethnic differences are also evident, with Hispanic, Black, and Asian adults more concerned about identity theft and data misuse compared to White adults.

Public trust in social media companies is low. 77% of Americans distrust social media executives’ ability to admit mistakes regarding data misuse, while 76% are skeptical about their commitment to prevent unauthorized data sales.

Communication privacy

In the context of digital privacy, communication privacy is the notion that individuals should have the freedom, or right, to communicate information digitally with the expectation that their communications are secure—meaning that messages and communications will only be accessible to the sender's original intended recipient. [3]

However, communications can be intercepted or delivered to other recipients without the sender's knowledge, in a multitude of ways. Communications can be intercepted directly through various hacking methods, such as the man-in-the-middle attack (MITM). [13] Communications can also be delivered to recipients unbeknown to the sender due to false assumptions made regarding the platform or medium that was used to send information. For example, the failure to read a company's privacy policy regarding communications on their platform could lead one to assume that their communication is protected when it is in fact not. [14] Additionally, companies frequently have been known to lack transparency in how they use information, which can be both intentional and unintentional. [15] Discussion of communication privacy necessarily requires consideration of technological methods of protecting information/communication in digital mediums, the effectiveness and ineffectiveness of such methods/systems, and the development/advancement of new and current technologies.

Many scholars have used communication privacy management (CPM) theory as a way to define control over private information. By sharing information with others through social media, the ownership of that information becomes collective. [16]

Individual privacy

In the context of digital privacy, individual privacy is the notion that individuals have a right to exist freely on the internet, in that they can choose what type of information they are exposed to, and more importantly, that unwanted information should not interrupt them. [3] An example of a digital breach of individual privacy would be an internet user receiving unwanted ads and emails/spam, or a computer virus that forces the user to take actions, which otherwise they would not. In such cases, the individual does not exist digitally without interruption from unwanted information; thus their individual privacy has been infringed upon.

Individual privacy

Some internet users proactively work to ensure information can not be collected, this is the practice of attempting to remain anonymous. There are many ways for a user to stay anonymous on the internet, including onion routing, anonymous VPN services, probabilistic anonymity, and deterministic anonymity. [17] Some companies are trying to create an all-in-one solution, In an interview with Tom Okman, co-founder of NordVPN he mentioned they're currently exploring a technology that will block trackers, cookies, detect malware before it lands on the user's device and more. [18]

Information anonymity

For a user to keep their information anonymous when accessing the web, onion routing can be used to ensure the protection of their personally identifiable information.

Onion routing was originally developed by the U.S. Naval Research Lab and was intended to anonymize web traffic. [19] The system created a path to any TCP/IP server by creating a pathway of onion routers. Once a pathway has been established, all information that is sent through it is anonymously delivered. [20] When the user has finished utilizing the pathway it was essentially deleted which freed the resources to be used for a new pathway within onion routing. The Onion Routing Project developed into what is today known as Tor, a completely open-sourced and free software. Unlike its predecessor, Tor is able to protect both the anonymity of individuals as well as web providers. This allows people to set up anonymous web servers that in effect provide a censorship-resistant publishing service. [19]

Communication anonymity

While the previously mentioned information anonymity system can also potentially protect the contents of communications between two people, there are other systems that directly function to guarantee that communication remains between its intended recipients. [21]

One of these systems, Pretty Good Privacy (PGP), has existed in various forms for many years. It functions to protect email messages by encrypting and decrypting them. It originally existed as a command-line-only program, but it has evolved in recent years to have its own full interface, and a multitude of email providers now offer built-in PGP support. Users can also install PGP-compatible software and manually configure it to encrypt emails on nearly any platform. [22]

Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) and Transport Layer Security (TLS) are measures to secure payments online. While these systems are not immune from breaches or failure, many users benefit greatly from their use as every major browser program has built-in support for it. [19]

Additional services

There are additional methods that work to provide anonymity and, by extension, protect the user's data.

As IP addresses can frequently be traced back to a specific physical location, [23] and likewise can identify someone as well, changing one's IP address can help users remain anonymous by providing access to a multitude of servers in various geographic locations around the world, allowing them to appear as if they are physically located in a selected area, even when they are not. This is an example of a method/service that works to allow for information and communication anonymity. [24] IP-address changers are one such service, which an internet user typically pays a fee to use.

The Virtual Private Network (VPN) is a technology that provides users secured connection over a non-secure public network such as the Internet through several tunneling protocols, handling, and encapsulating traffic at different levels to ensure communication security. [25] VPN is also effective in securing data and privacy over the cloud and data-center environments because it is capable of protecting IPs from exposure to different kinds of attacks. This technology can be categorized into SSL VPN and IPSec VPN, which are methods of data communication from a user device to a VPN gateway using a secure tunnel. [26] There is also the case of the VHSP mechanism, which protects the exposure of an IP address by assigning a temporal IP for the VPN gateway and its services. [26]

The use of network address translation (NAT) allows users to hide connections passing through a gateway behind the gateway through the use of a sensible hiding IP address that is routable to the issuing gateway. [27]

The (no) harm principle

Following the (no) harm principle of John Stuart Mill, private references must be respected: one can do whatever they want as long as others do not suffer from the consequences of it. In one's private space, alone, a person is free to do whatever they desire.

With the advent of photojournalism, the invasion of celebrities' private lives arose along with the notion of right-to-privacy—or what Samuel D. Warren II and Louis Brandeis branded in 1890 as "the right to be left alone." [28] Today's "privacy incidents" do not exclusively concern celebrities and politicians, as most people are connected and share data: people are not online to be left alone.

The economic value of data

According to Alessandro Acquisti, Curtis Taylor and Liad Wagman in The Economics of Privacy (2015), [29] individual data can be seen as having two types of value: a commercial value and a private value. The fact that data is collected can have both positive and negative effects, and can cause a violation of privacy and a monetary cost. As per Acquisti, Taylor, and Wagman, there are further concerns about the progress of collecting data as data analysis becomes increasingly more efficient.

Regulations such as the EU Data Protection Directive, the U.S. Children's Online Privacy Protection Act , and many more are being put in place; however, the IT industry is always evolving and requires the users to be empowered and focus on self-management of the online privacy. As such, it is very important for the lawmakers to continue focusing on the right balance between the use of the internet and the economics of privacy.

Privacy and information breaches

Methods can be purposely crafted to obtain one's personal information illegally. These directed attacks are commonly referred to as hacking, though that term refers to the general practice and does not address specific hacking methods and implementation. Various hacking methods as it pertains to the invasion of one's digital privacy are outlined below. As it pertains to intent, within hacking, there are two categories of invasion:

  1. Directed attacks against someone individually, and
  2. Directed attacks against groups. [30]

With the latter category, however, a hacker could effectively obtain a specified/particular individual's information through first targeting a larger group. [31] An example of this possibility could be as follows: if a hacker, named individual-A, wishes to obtain a particular person's information, individual-B, they could first target a platform or group that has individual-B's information already, such as a credit agency, or they could likewise target a group that individual-B has previously relinquished/provided their data to, like a social media network or a cloud based data service. Through targeting one of those groups, individual-A could effectively obtain individual-B's information by first hacking all data the group has, including the data of other individuals. Once obtained, the hacker could simply identify individual-B's information within the data and disregard the rest. Digital tools are available online to help thwart personal data theft. [32]

Phishing

Phishing is a common method of obtaining someone's private information. [33] This generally consists of an individual (often referred in this context as a hacker), developing a website that looks similar to other major websites that a target person commonly uses. The phishing website may look identical to the legitimate site, but its URL could have a variation in spelling or a different domain such as .org instead of .com. [34] The target person can be directed to the site through a link in a "fake" email that is designed to look like it came from the website they commonly use. The user then clicks on the URL, proceeds to sign in, or provide other personal information, and as opposed to the information being submitted to the website that the user thought they were on, it is actually sent directly to the hacker. [35] Phishing attacks commonly obtain bank and financial data as well as social networking website information. [34]

Online tools can help users protect their information from phishing attacks, including Web browser extensions, which are capable of flagging suspicious websites and links. [36]

Development and controversy

Digital privacy is a trending social concern. For example, over the past decade, the usage of the phrase digital privacy has increased by more than fivefold in published books. [37] A TED talk by Eric Berlow and Sean Gourley following the 2013 mass surveillance disclosures cast a shadow over the privacy of cloud storage and social media. [38] While digital privacy is concerned with the privacy of digital information in general, in many contexts it specifically refers to information concerning personal identity shared over public networks. [39]

As the secrecy of the American Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act becomes widely disclosed, [40] digital privacy is increasingly recognized as an issue in the context of mass surveillance. Prior to the Edward Snowden disclosures concerning the extent of the NSA PRISM program were revealed in 2013, the public debate on digital privacy mainly centered on privacy concerns with social-networking services, as viewed from within these services. Even after 2013, scandals related to social-media privacy issues have continued to attract public attention. The most notable of these is the coverage of the Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal in 2018, which led to a 66% decrease in public trust of Facebook. [41]

The use of cryptographic software to evade prosecution and harassment while sending and receiving information over computer networks is associated with crypto-anarchism, a movement intending to protect individuals from mass surveillance by the government.

Future Research

In the future, research on digital privacy should explore the intersection of [security|cybersecurity] and personal data protection. Specifically, it is crucial to investigate the evolving risks of cyber threats like malware, ransomware, and phishing, which threaten privacy. Moreover, a multi-disciplinary approach that combines legal, technological, and social perspectives would provide a comprehensive understanding of how personal data is shared, managed, and protected. This could expand the focus beyond individual protection to include the collective implications of digital privacy, particularly as new technologies like AI and IoT complicate privacy boundaries. [42]

See also

Further reading

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anonymity</span> Situation in which a person is non-identifiable, unreachable, or untrackable

Anonymity describes situations where the acting person's identity is unknown. Some writers have argued that namelessness, though technically correct, does not capture what is more centrally at stake in contexts of anonymity. The important idea here is that a person be non-identifiable, unreachable, or untrackable. Anonymity is seen as a technique, or a way of realizing, a certain other values, such as privacy, or liberty. Over the past few years, anonymity tools used on the dark web by criminals and malicious users have drastically altered the ability of law enforcement to use conventional surveillance techniques.

Information privacy is the relationship between the collection and dissemination of data, technology, the public expectation of privacy, contextual information norms, and the legal and political issues surrounding them. It is also known as data privacy or data protection.

An anonymous P2P communication system is a peer-to-peer distributed application in which the nodes, which are used to share resources, or participants are anonymous or pseudonymous. Anonymity of participants is usually achieved by special routing overlay networks that hide the physical location of each node from other participants.

Internet security is a branch of computer security. It encompasses the Internet, browser security, web site security, and network security as it applies to other applications or operating systems as a whole. Its objective is to establish rules and measures to use against attacks over the Internet. The Internet is an inherently insecure channel for information exchange, with high risk of intrusion or fraud, such as phishing, online viruses, trojans, ransomware and worms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Darknet</span> Private network where connections are made only between trusted peers

A darknet or dark net is an overlay network within the Internet that can only be accessed with specific software, configurations, or authorization, and often uses a unique customized communication protocol. Two typical darknet types are social networks, and anonymity proxy networks such as Tor via an anonymized series of connections.

Internet privacy involves the right or mandate of personal privacy concerning the storage, re-purposing, provision to third parties, and display of information pertaining to oneself via the Internet. Internet privacy is a subset of data privacy. Privacy concerns have been articulated from the beginnings of large-scale computer sharing and especially relate to mass surveillance.

Personal data, also known as personal information or personally identifiable information (PII), is any information related to an identifiable person.

Email privacy is a broad topic dealing with issues of unauthorized access to, and inspection of, electronic mail, or unauthorized tracking when a user reads an email. This unauthorized access can happen while an email is in transit, as well as when it is stored on email servers or on a user's computer, or when the user reads the message. In countries with a constitutional guarantee of the secrecy of correspondence, whether email can be equated with letters—therefore having legal protection from all forms of eavesdropping—is disputed because of the very nature of email.

An anonymous post, is an entry on a textboard, anonymous bulletin board system, or other discussion forums like Internet forum, without a screen name or more commonly by using a non-identifiable pseudonym. Some online forums such as Slashdot do not allow such posts, requiring users to be registered either under their real name or utilizing a pseudonym. Others like JuicyCampus, AutoAdmit, 2channel, and other Futaba-based imageboards thrive on anonymity. Users of 4chan, in particular, interact in an anonymous and ephemeral environment that facilitates rapid generation of new trends.

An anonymizer or an anonymous proxy is a tool that attempts to make activity on the Internet untraceable. It is a proxy server computer that acts as an intermediary and privacy shield between a client computer and the rest of the Internet. It accesses the Internet on the user's behalf, protecting personal information of the user by hiding the client computer's identifying information such as IP addresses. Anonymous proxy is the opposite of transparent proxy, which sends user information in the connection request header. Commercial anonymous proxies are usually sold as VPN services.

Privacy-enhancing technologies (PET) are technologies that embody fundamental data protection principles by minimizing personal data use, maximizing data security, and empowering individuals. PETs allow online users to protect the privacy of their personally identifiable information (PII), which is often provided to and handled by services or applications. PETs use techniques to minimize an information system's possession of personal data without losing functionality. Generally speaking, PETs can be categorized as either hard or soft privacy technologies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tor (network)</span> Free and open-source anonymity network based on onion routing

Tor is a free overlay network for enabling anonymous communication. Built on free and open-source software and more than seven thousand volunteer-operated relays worldwide, users can have their Internet traffic routed via a random path through the network.

Web tracking is the practice by which operators of websites and third parties collect, store and share information about visitors' activities on the World Wide Web. Analysis of a user's behaviour may be used to provide content that enables the operator to infer their preferences and may be of interest to various parties, such as advertisers. Web tracking can be part of visitor management.

Since the arrival of early social networking sites in the early 2000s, online social networking platforms have expanded exponentially, with the biggest names in social media in the mid-2010s being Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and Snapchat. The massive influx of personal information that has become available online and stored in the cloud has put user privacy at the forefront of discussion regarding the database's ability to safely store such personal information. The extent to which users and social media platform administrators can access user profiles has become a new topic of ethical consideration, and the legality, awareness, and boundaries of subsequent privacy violations are critical concerns in advance of the technological age.

The dark web is the World Wide Web content that exists on darknets that use the Internet but require specific software, configurations, or authorization to access. Through the dark web, private computer networks can communicate and conduct business anonymously without divulging identifying information, such as a user's location. The dark web forms a small part of the deep web, the part of the web not indexed by web search engines, although sometimes the term deep web is mistakenly used to refer specifically to the dark web.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to computer security:

Human rightsandencryption are often viewed as interlinked. Encryption can be a technology that helps implement basic human rights. In the digital age, the freedom of speech has become more controversial; however, from a human rights perspective, there is a growing awareness that encryption is essential for a free, open, and trustworthy Internet.

Search engine privacy is a subset of internet privacy that deals with user data being collected by search engines. Both types of privacy fall under the umbrella of information privacy. Privacy concerns regarding search engines can take many forms, such as the ability for search engines to log individual search queries, browsing history, IP addresses, and cookies of users, and conducting user profiling in general. The collection of personally identifiable information (PII) of users by search engines is referred to as tracking.

Hard privacy technologies are methods of protecting data. Hard privacy technologies and soft privacy technologies both fall under the category of privacy-enhancing technologies. Hard privacy technologies allow online users to protect their privacy through different services and applications without the trust of the third-parties. The data protection goal is data minimization and reduction of the trust in third-parties and the freedom to conceal information or to communicate.

A virtual private network (VPN) service provides a proxy server to help users bypass Internet censorship such as geo-blocking and users who want to protect their communications against data profiling or MitM attacks on hostile networks.

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