Euonymus europaeus, the spindle, European spindle, or common spindle, is a species of flowering plant in the familyCelastraceae, native to much of Europe, where it inhabits the edges of forest, hedges and gentle slopes, tending to thrive on nutrient-rich, chalky and salt-poor soils. It is a deciduousshrub or small tree.
Euonymus europaeus grows to 3–6m (10–20ft) tall, rarely 10m (33ft), with a stem up to 20cm (8in) in diameter. The leaves are opposite, lanceolate to elliptical, 3–8cm long and 1–3cm broad, with a finely serrated edge.[2] The base is cuneate.[3] Leaves are dark green in summer. Autumn colour ranges from yellow-green to reddish-purple, depending on environmental conditions.[2]
The hermaphroditeflowers are produced in late spring and are insect-pollinated. They are rather inconspicuous and small with yellowish-green petals, and grow in cymes of 3–8 together. The capsular fruit ripens in autumn, and is red to purple or pink in colour and approximately 1–1.5cm wide. When ripe, the four lobes split open to reveal the orange seeds.
Habitat and ecology
E. europaeus occurs as an understorey shrub or small tree primarily in old hedgerows, open woodland clearings and margins, and scrubland on base-rich or calcareous soils. However, it is also shade-tolerant. It rarely invades open habitats such as grasslands unless abundant hedges are present[4] In Ireland, it can also be found growing on rocky limestone outcrops, rocky lake shores and limestone pavements.[5]
It is typical in Fraxinus excelsior – Acer campestre – Mercurialis perenniswoodland (W8), and it is a frequent companion of Cornus sanguinea in open-stand scrub over limestone, generally in low frequency and abundance throughout.[6] Its distribution is usually scattered, but it may occasionally occur remarkably commonly on a local scale. An example of this is in the so-called "Spindle Valley" in the Chilterns.[7] The scattered distribution is likely limited by dispersal of seeds via birds and rodents.[8]
E. europaeus is the almost exclusive winter host of the black bean aphid.[9] Because of the potential economic loss from this insect that feeds on cultivated broad beans and sugar beet, spindle in the past was commonly removed from hedges and woodlands as a measure against black bean aphid outbreaks and agricultural yield losses, although this widespread removal does not appear to have impacted current populations. In 1944, The Biology War Committee also began a campaign to investigate the distribution and ecology of E. europeaus as a basis for aphid control measures.[4]
Cultivation and uses
It is a popular ornamental plant in gardens and parks due to its bright pink or purple fruits and attractive autumn colouring.
European spindle wood is very hard, and can be cut to a sharp point. In the past it was used to make spindles for spinning wool and for butchers' skewers.[12]
Charcoal produced from this plant is held in high esteem among artists for its exceptional strength and density.
Parts of the plant have been used for medicinal purposes.[13] However, the fruit is poisonous and contains several toxic substances, including the alkaloidstheobromine and caffeine, as well as a large number of much more toxic substances, including cardiac glycosides, and an extremely bitter terpene. Poisoning is more common in young children, who are attracted to the brightly coloured fruits. Ingesting them can result in liver and kidney damage, or even death.[14]
1 2 Dirr, Michael A. 1998. Manual of Woody Landscape Plants, 5th ed
↑ Thomas, Peter A; El-Barghathi, M; Polwart, A (2011). "Biological Flora of the British Isles: Euonymus europaeus L.". Journal of Ecology. 99: 345–365. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2010.01760.x.
↑ Green P. 2008. Flora of County Waterford. National Botanic Gardens of Ireland, Dublin, Ireland.
↑ Rodwell JS. 1991. British Plant Communities. Vol. 1. Woodlands and Scrub. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK
↑ Snow B, Snow D. 1988. Birds and Berries. Poyser, Calton, UK.
↑ Grubb, Peter J.; Lee, William G.; Kollmann, Johannes; Wilson, J. Bastow (1996). "Interaction of Irradiance and Soil Nutrient Supply on Growth of Seedlings of Ten European Tall-Shrub Species and Fagus Sylvatica". Journal of Ecology. 84 (6): 827–840. Bibcode:1996JEcol..84..827G. doi:10.2307/2960555. JSTOR2960555.
↑ Way, M. J.; Cammell, M. E. (1982). "The Distribution and Abundance of the Spindle Tree, Euonymus europaeus, in Southern England with Particular Reference to Forecasting Infestations of the Black Bean Aphid, Aphis fabae". Journal of Applied Ecology. 19 (3): 929–940. Bibcode:1982JApEc..19..929W. doi:10.2307/2403294. JSTOR2403294.
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