Family tree of the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kings

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This family tree (and the trees below it) is based on a combination of Tarn's and Narain's genealogies of the Greco-Bactrian kings, which are not necessarily fully correct, as with all ancient family trees. Additionally, according to Tarn and Narain, the Eucratid dynasty is descended from Laodice, sister of Antiochus the Great and daughter of Seleukos II, whose sister married Diodotus I , the first Greco-Bactrian king. Additionally, one of Diodotus's descendants, the Greco-Bactrian ruler Demetrius the Unconquered , the first Indo-Greek king, married a daughter of Antiochus III the Great and had issue, which is shown here below. [1] [2] Thus, most of the Greco-Bactrian kings are related to each other through the Seleukid Dynasty, and thus, are related to the Diadochi and Alexander the Great . Perhaps Menander , an Indo-Greek king, married a probable daughter of Eucratides the Great (see the family trees of the Diodotids, mainline Euthydemids, and the Indo-Greek Menanderids below for a different ancestry for Agathoclea), meaning the Indo-Greek kings are related as well. [3] This tree covers all the Greek rulers of Bactria and India, from 255 B.C. to A.D. 10. This article also covers the family trees of the rulers of the post-Greco-Bactrian state of Dayuan and Oxyartes's family tree and his relationship to the Greco-Bactrian kings. To find more information on the various dynasties and rulers, see these articles: Greco-Bactria, Indo-Greeks, Diodotids, Euthydemids, Eucratids, Menanderids, Indo-Scythians, the Dayuan, and the Yavana people. See the various chronologies and lists of rulers below the trees for easier navigation and understanding of the placement of the various kings in each tree.

Contents

Family tree of the early Greco-Bactrian kings (mostly Diodotids and some Euthydemids)

Greco-Bactrian kings (generally showing Diodotids) Family Tree [1] [2] [3]
NN, daughter of Antiochus II Diodotus I (perhaps also had Antiochus Nicator?), the first Greco-Bactrian king
Diodotus II NN, married Euthydemus I (see Euthydemid dynasty below) Antimachus I (most likely a son of Euthydemus I)
Antimachus I (for descendants, see below and to the right. Most likely a son of Euthydemus ) Apollodotus I (or son of Euthydemus, Demetrius I, Menander I, or Eucratides I (most likely a son or grandson of Euthydemus I)) Agathocles of Bactria (or a son of Pantaleon or Euthydemus)] Antimachus II (see Indo-Greek Euthydemids for more below)
Family tree of some Indo-Greek and Greco-Bactrian kings, according to A.K. Narain. Greco-Bactria-Narain.jpg
Family tree of some Indo-Greek and Greco-Bactrian kings, according to A.K. Narain.

To the right a picture is shown of Narain's version of the genealogy of these kings. [2] Below are family trees of the Euthydemid, Eucratid, and Menanderid dynasties. [1] [2] [3] The Greek connection to the Qin emperors of China is shown below, and with this connection (and with Chandragupta Maurya's marriage to Seleukos's daughter, see Eucratids below), the ancient kings of Persia, India, Greece, and China, oddly enough, are all related. [4]

Other family trees (Euthydemids, Eucratids, Menanderids, the later Indo-Greek Euthydemid dynasty, Indo-Scythians, Dynasty of Oxyartes, and the Ferghana kings)

Euthydemids [for the Antimachid line (Antimachus I, son of Euthydemus, father of Antimachus II), see below] [1] [2] [3]
{{{Sophytes (satrap of Bactria, or of Arachosia, or king of Bactria? two different people? Had other descendants other than the Euthydemids?}}}
{{{Antimachus/Apollodotus, general from a Magnesia}}}
Euthydemus I {{{NN, daughter of Diodotus I }}}
{{{Euthydemus II (or son of Demetrius I), relatd to Xiutu of Gansu? (see to the right)}}}{{{NN, daughter of Antiochus the Great}}} Demetrius the Unconquered {{{Pantaleon, first Indo-Greek king, father of Agathocles I, who is possibly also a son of Demetrius I, and he was probably the father of Agathoclea, wife of Menander (see Menanderids below). He is possibly also a son of Demetrius I}}}{{{Zoilus I}}}{{{NN, according to one source [5] }}}{{{Qin Shi Huangdi, the first Emperor of China}}}{{{Han dynasty (see Liu Bang for the founder of the dynasty and contemporary of the Greco-Bactrians. For further descendants, see Liu, and for ancestors, see Ji)}}}{{{Xiutu (Soter?) of Gansu [6] }}} Antimachus I (see Diodotids for different ancestry above and for descendants, see Indo-Greek Euthydemids below)
{{{Demetrius II}}}{{{Apollodotus I (or son of Euthydemus, Menander I, or Eucratides I (most likely a son or grandson of Euthydemus I))}}}{{{Lysias Anicetus (or son of Zoilus I)}}}{{{Demetrius III (unclear relation, possibly a descendant is called Demetrius IV? See Menanderids below for another possible descendant, Demetrius V)}}}{{{Zoilus II, possibly had a son called Zoilus III?}}}{{{Qin Er Shi, second Emperor of China (see Qin Dynasty for further dynasts)}}}{{{Han-Zhao Dynasty, from Chuge}}}{{{Ban family}}} Antimachus II, for descendants, see Indo-Greek Euthydemids below
{{{Theophilus (or related to Zoilus I)}}}{{{Mauryan dynasty. See Eucratids below for another marriage connection between the Greeks and the Mauryans}}}
{{{Menander ( Menander I the Great ?? If so, see Menanderids below))}}}{{{Strato}}}
{{{Berenice [7] }}}{{{Brihadratha Maurya, the last Mauryan emperor}}}
{{{fall of Mauryan Empire. See Shunga Empire and the following war}}}
Indo-Greek kings - The Indo-Greek Eucratid/Antialcidas Dynasty [1] [2] [3]
{{{Seleukos I (see Diodotids above)}}}
{{{Antiochus I Soter, married Stratonice, granddaughter of Antipater, of Ale.'s Argead Dyn. (see Oxyartes dynasty below)}}}{{{NN}}}{{{Chandragupta Maurya (see Mauryan Dynasty and the Euthydemids above for a possible, but not likely, Seleucid-Mauryan descendant, the last Mauryan emperor Brihadratha Maurya, and his marriage with Berenice, the daughter of Demetrius the Unconquered)}}}
{{{Antiochus II Theos}}}{{{Mauryan dynasty}}}
{{{Seleukos II}}}{{{NN}}}{{{Diodotus I (for descendants, see Diodotids above)}}}
{{{Heliocles}}}{{{Laodice}}}{{{Antiochus III the Great (see Euthydemids above)}}}
{{{ Eucratides the Great }}}
{{{Plato (or brother of Eucratides)}}}{{{Eucratides II (or son of Heliocles I)}}}{{{Heliocles I (or brother of Eucratides)}}}
{{{Archebius (related to Heliocles II?)}}}{{{Yuezhi occupation - for its descendants, see Kushan Empire and Heraios for a quasi-contemporary ruler (see Indo-Greek Euthydemids and Hermaeus below)}}}{{{Heliocles II (or brother of Archebius, or son of Antialcidas, or grandson of Heliocles I, or descendant of Demetrius III, if Demetrius III, see Euthydemids above)}}}
{{{Antialcidas}}}
{{{Diomedes (or related to Philoxenus, see Indo-Greek Euthydemids below)}}}{{{Amyntas (or Menanderids, see Indo-Greek Euthydemids below)}}}{{{Telephus (or Indo-Scythian, see below for Maues)}}}
{{{Hermaeus (see Indo-Greek Euthydemids below)}}}
Indo-Greek kings - Menanderid Dynasty [1] [2] [3]
{{{?Demetrius II? [2] (see Euthydemids), but not fully likely, so maybe just Greco-Bactrian nobility}}}
Menander I Soter, the Great Agathoclea, daughter (or sister, but unlikely) of Agathocles who is either a son of Demetrius I or of Pantaleon, who is possibly also a son of Demetrius I (see Euthydemids above). She could also be a daughter of Eucratides the Great, but this is less likely (see above for his dynasty).
{{{Strato I}}}{{{Thraso}}}{{{Amyntas (see Euthydemids below)}}}{{{Nicias (see Euthydemids below)}}}
{{{Epander}}}
{{{Menander II (unclear relation)}}}{{{Polyxenus}}}{{{Peucolaus (no relation?)}}}
{{{Apollodotus II (or son of Amyntas or Apollodotus I? (most likely not the latter)}}}
{{{Apollophanes (unclear relation)}}}{{{Strato II (or grandson or great-grandson of Strato I)}}}
{{{Strato III}}}
{{{collapse of the Indo-Greek state by Rajuvula and the Northern Satraps and Indo-Scythians}}}{{{Theodamas (unclear relation, if any)}}}{{{Demetrius V? (unclear relation, perhaps descended from Demetrius III and Demetrius IV, the probable son or grandson of Demetrius III, instead. If so, see Euthydemids above.)}}}
Indo-Greek kings - The rest of the Greco-Bactrian (there are only Indo-Greeks in this tree) and Indo-Greek Euthydemid Dynasty (see Menanderids above for more Euthydemid dynasts) [1] [2] [3]
{{{Euthydemids (or Diodotids, for both, see above)}}}
Antimachus II
{{{Amyntas (see Eucratids and Menanderids above)}}}{{{Philoxenus (or no dynastic connection?)}}}{{{or Menanderids (see above)}}}
{{{Hermaeus}}}{{{Kalliope}}}{{{Nicias}}}
{{{Yuezhi occupation - for its descendants, see Kushan Empire and Heraios for a quasi-contemporary ruler}}}{{{Hippostratus}}}
{{{Kalliope (most likely daughter of Ph. instead, see above)}}}
Indo-Greek kings - Indo-Scythian kings (only some here) [1] [2] [3]
{{{Maues}}}{{{Machene, daughter of an Indo-Greek king? [8] }}}
{{{Artemidoros (or son of an Indo-Greek king. Had a son if Indo-Greek?)}}}{{{Azes I (see the Indo-Scythian dynasties)}}}
{{{possible descendants ?}}}
{{{further kings, perhaps related or not, to A.D. 400s}}}
Dynasty of Oxyartes (if it existed at all) [9] [1] [2] [3]
{{{Oxyartes, either of Sogdian or Bactrian origin}}}{{{Spitamenes (of Sogdian origin, but of Bactrian nobility and he married an Achaemenid, both according to Tarn [10] }}}
{{{Argead Dynasty (Antiochus I Soter, son of Seleukos I, married Stratonice, granddaughter of Antipater, of Argead Dyn. )}}}
{{{Roxana, claimed by Sele. to be the d. of Darius III [1] }}}{{{Alexander the Great}}}{{{?Oxyartes II, III, etc.? (to c.253-244 B.C., according to Tarn [11] )}}}{{{Apama (actually only daughter of Spitamenes, and not descended from Alexander the Great, like the Seleucids claimed)}}}{{{Seleukos I Nicator}}}
{{{Alexander IV}}}{{{Ptolemies, descended from Argead Dynasty}}}{{{Seleukid dynasty and the Greco-Bactrian/Indo-Greek kings (see Diodotids, Euthydemids, Eucratids, Menanderids, see above)}}}
{{{descendants}}}
Dayuan kings - Ferghana kings [1] [2] [3]
[12]
{{{Indo-Scythians? or Greco-Bactrians?}}}{{{Wugua}}}{{{Chanfeng}}}
{{{Meicai (or Maues or father of Maues? - see Indo-Scythian above)?}}}{{{son}}}
{{{?other kings?}}}

Chronologies of the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek Kings

These chronologies can be used to more easily navigate the family trees.


The chronology used here is adapted from Osmund Bopearachchi, supplemented by the views of R C Senior and occasionally other authorities. [13]

Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kings, their coins, territories and chronology
Based on Bopearachchi (1991) [14]
Greco-Bactrian kings Indo-Greek kings
Territories/
dates		West Bactria East Bactria Paropamisade
Arachosia Gandhara Western Punjab Eastern Punjab Mathura [15]
326–325 BC Campaigns of Alexander the Great in India Alexander the Great India coin.jpg
312 BCCreation of the Seleucid Empire
305 BC Seleucid Empire after Mauryan war
280 BCFoundation of Ai-Khanoum
255–239 BCIndependence of the
Greco-Bactrian kingdom
Diodotus I Gold coin of Diodotos I of Bactria.jpg
239–223 BC Diodotus II Coin of Diodotos II.jpg
230–200 BC Euthydemus I EuthydemusMedailles.jpg
200–190 BC Demetrius I DemetriusCoin.jpg
190–185 BC Euthydemus II EuthydemusIICoin.jpg
190–180 BC Agathocles Coin of the Bactrian king Agathokles.jpg Pantaleon Coin of King Pantaleon.jpg
185–170 BC Antimachus I AntimachusMedaille.jpg
180–160 BC Apollodotus I Coin of Indo-Greek king Apollodotos I.jpg
175–170 BC Demetrius II Demetriosii.jpg
160–155 BC Antimachus II Coin of Antimachus II.jpg
170–145 BC Eucratides Monnaie de Bactriane, Eucratide I, 2 faces.jpg
155–130 BC Yuezhi occupation,
loss of Ai-Khanoum 		Eucratides II Coin of Eukratides II.jpg
Plato Coin of Plato of Bactria.jpg
Heliocles I HelioclesCoin.jpg 		Menander I Menander Alexandria-Kapisa.jpg
130–120 BC Yuezhi occupation Zoilos I ZoilosI-525.jpg Agathokleia Coin of Agathokleia.jpg Yavanarajya inscription.jpg
Yavanarajya
inscription
120–110 BC Lysias Lysias-150.jpg Strato I Coin of Agathokleia & Strato.jpg
110–100 BC Antialcidas Antialcidas.JPG Heliokles II Helioclesii.jpg
100 BC Polyxenos Polyxenos.jpg Demetrius III Demetrius Aniketou.jpg
100–95 BC Philoxenus Philoxenos.jpg
95–90 BC Diomedes Diomedes2.jpg Amyntas Coin of Amyntas Nicator.jpg Epander Epander.jpg
90 BC Theophilos Theophilos-634.jpg Peukolaos Peukolaos coin.jpg Thraso Thraso coin simulation.jpg
90–85 BC Nicias Nikias.jpg Menander II MenanderDikaiou.jpg Artemidoros Coin of Artimedoros.jpg
90–70 BC Hermaeus HermaeusCoin.jpg Archebius Coin of Indo-Greek king Archebios.jpg
Yuezhi occupation Maues (Indo-Scythian)
75–70 BC Telephos Telephos.jpg Apollodotus II Coin of Appollodotos II.jpg
65–55 BC Hippostratos Hippostratos.jpg Dionysios Dyonisos coin.jpg
55–35 BC Azes I (Indo-Scythian) Zoilos II ZoilosIICoin.JPG
55–35 BC Apollophanes Coin of Apollophanes.jpg
25 BC – AD 10 Strato II and Strato III Stratoii.jpg
Zoilos III/ Bhadayasa Bhadrayasha coin.jpg
Rajuvula (Indo-Scythian)

List of the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek Kings

Greco-Bactrian kings

The below table lists the known Greek rulers of Bactria, along with their dates and titles or epithets.

Greco-Bactrian Kings
(c. 255 BC–130 BC)
Reign (approx.)KingTitle
255–239 BC Diodotus I Soter
239–223 BC Diodotus II Theos
230–200 BC Euthydemus I Theos
200–180 BC Demetrius I Anicetus
200–180 BC Pantaleon Soter
190–180 BC Agathocles Dikaios
185–180 BC Euthydemus II —
180–170 BC Antimachus I Theos
180–160 BC Apollodotus I Soter
175–160 BC Demetrius II —
171–145 BC Eucratides I Megas
145–140 BC Eucratides II Soter
145–140 BC Plato Epiphanes
140–130 BC Heliocles I Dikaios

Dates that overlap show that multiple kings ruled at the same time, but in different regions whose exact details are not known very well. For example, Apollodotus I likely ruled areas south of Bactria and the Indian subcontinent while Antimachus I ruled in Bactria. [16] Eucratides II and Plato would have each ruled smaller parts of southern Bactria.

Indo-Greek kings

The following list of kings, dates and territories after the reign of Demetrius the Unconquered (see Euthydemids above) is derived from the latest and most extensive analysis on the subject, by Osmund Bopearachchi ("Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, Catalogue Raisonné", 1991).

Eastern territories

The descendants of the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus invaded northern India around 180 BC as far as the Punjab.

Demetrius I, founder of the Indo-Greek kingdom (r.c. 205-171 BC). DemetriusCoin.jpg
Demetrius I, founder of the Indo-Greek kingdom (r.c. 205-171 BC).

The territory ruled by Demetrius, from Bactria to Pataliputra, was then separated between western and eastern parts, and ruled by several sub-kings and successor kings. The Western part made of Bactria was ruled by a succession of Greco-Bactrian kings until the end of the reign of Heliocles around 130 BCE. The Eastern part, made of the Paropamisadae, Arachosia, Gandhara and Punjab, perhaps as far as Mathura, was ruled by a succession of kings, called "Indo-Greek":

Territories of Paropamisadae to Mathura (house of Euthydemus)

Coins

The usurper Eucratides managed to eradicate the Euthydemid dynasty and occupy territory as far as the Indus River, between 170 and 145 BCE. Eucratides was then murdered by his son, thereafter Menander I seems to have regained all of the territory as far west as the Hindu-Kush

Territory from Hindu-Kush to Mathura (150 - 125 BCE)

After the death of Menander I, his successors seem to have been pushed back east to Gandhara, losing the Paropamisadae and Arachosia to a Western Indo-Greek kingdom. Some years later the Eastern kings probably had to retreat even further, to Western Punjab.

Territory from Gandhara/Western Punjab to Mathura (125 - 100 BC)

The following minor kings who ruled parts of the kingdom:

After around 100 BCE, Indian kings recovered the area of Mathura and Eastern Punjab east of the Ravi River, and started to mint their own coins.

The Western king Philoxenus briefly occupied the whole remaining Greek territory from the Paropamisadae to Western Punjab between 100 and 95 BC, after what the territories fragmented again. The eastern kings regained their territory as far west as Arachosia.

During the 1st century BC, the Indo-Greeks progressively lost ground against the invasion of the Indo-Scythians, until the last king Strato II ended his ruled in Eastern Punjab around 10 CE.

Territory of Arachosia and Gandhara (95-70 BCE)

Territory of Western Punjab (95-55 BC)

Tetradrachm of Hippostratus, reigned circa 65-55 BCE. Coin of Hippostratos.jpg
Tetradrachm of Hippostratus, reigned circa 65-55 BCE.

Around 80 BCE, parts of Eastern Punjab were regained again:

Territories of Eastern Punjab (80 BC - 10 AD)

Western territories

The following kings ruled the western parts of the Indo-Greek/Graeco-Bactrian realms, which are here referred to as the "Western kingdom". Probably after the death of Menander I, the Paropamisadae and Arachosia broke loose, and the Western kings eventually seem to have extended into Gandhara by the following kings. Several of its rulers are believed to have belonged to the house of Eucratides.

Territories of the Paropamisadae, Arachosia and Gandhara (130 - 95 BC)

Silver coin of Heliocles (145-130 BC) HelioclesCoin.jpg
Silver coin of Heliocles (145-130 BC)

After the death of Philoxenus, the Western kingdom fragmented and never became dominating again. The following kings ruled mostly in the Paropamisadae.


Territory of the Paropamisadae (95-70 BC)

The Yuezhi probably then took control of the Paropamisadae after Hermaeus. The first documented Yuezhi prince, Sapadbizes, ruled around 20 BCE, and minted in Greek and in the same style as the western Indo-Greek kings, probably depending on Greek mints and celators. The Yuezhi expanded to the east during the 1st century CE, to found the Kushan Empire. The first Kushan emperor Kujula Kadphises ostensibly associated himself with Hermaeus on his coins, suggesting that he may have been one of his descendants by alliance, or at least wanted to claim his legacy.

Indo-Greek princelets (Gandhara)

After the Indo-Scythian Kings became the rulers of northern India, remaining Greek communities were probably governed by lesser Greek rulers, without the right of coinage, into the 1st century CE, in the areas of the Paropamisadae and Gandhara:

  • Theodamas (c. 1st century CE) Indo-Greek ruler of the Bajaur area, northern Gandhara.

The Indo-Greeks may have kept a significant military role towards the 2nd century CE as suggested by the inscriptions of the Satavahana kings.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Menander I</span> 2nd-century BCE Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek king

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indo-Greek Kingdom</span> Hellenistic-era Greek kingdom in northwestern South Asia (200 BC–10 AD)

The Indo-Greek Kingdom, also known as the Yavana Kingdom, was a Hellenistic-era Greek kingdom covering various parts of modern-day Afghanistan, Pakistan and northwestern India.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Apollodotus I</span> Indo-Greek king

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eucratides I</span> Greco-Bactrian king from 172/171 BC to 145 BC

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antimachus I</span> Greco-Bactrian king

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hermaeus</span> Indo-Greek king

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Artemidoros Aniketos</span> 1st-century BC Indo-Greek king

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Apollodotus II</span> Indo-Greek king

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Apollophanes</span> Indo-Greek king

Apollophanes Soter was an Indo-Greek king in the area of eastern and central Punjab in modern India and Pakistan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Demetrius III Aniketos</span> Indo-Greek king

Demetrius III Aniketos is an Indo-Greek king who reigned in the area of Gandhara and Punjab.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antimachus II</span> Indo-Greek king

Antimachus II Nikephoros was an Indo-Greek king. He ruled a vast territory from the Hindu-Kush to the Punjab around 170 BCE. He was almost certainly the eponymous son of Antimachus I, who is known from a unique preserved tax receipt. Osmund Bopearachchi dated Antimachus II to 160–155 BCE on numismatical grounds, but changed this to 174–165 BCE after the tax receipt was revealed to synchronise his reign with that of Antimachus I. R. C. Senior has not dated Antimachus II but thinks that his coins were possibly Indian issues of Antimachus I, despite their different epithets and coin types.

Within the Indo-Greek Kingdom there were over 30 kings, often in competition on different territories. Many of them are only known through their coins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the Indo-Greek Kingdom</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indo-Greek religions</span> Religions of the Indo-Greeks (c. 200 BCE)

The Indo-Greeks practiced numerous religions during the time they ruled in the northwestern Indian subcontinent from the 2nd century BCE to the beginning of the 1st century CE. In addition to the worship of the Classical pantheon of the Greek deities found on their coins, the Indo-Greeks were involved with local faiths, particularly with Buddhism, but also with Hinduism and Zoroastrianism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sources of Indo-Greek history</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</span> Hellenistic-era Greek kingdom (256–100 BCE)

The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom was a Greek state of the Hellenistic period located in Central Asia. The kingdom was founded by the Seleucid satrap Diodotus I Soter in about 256 BC, and continued to dominate Central Asia until its fall around 120 BC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Euthydemid dynasty</span> Hellenistic dynasty

The Euthydemid dynasty was a Hellenistic dynasty founded by Euthydemus I in 230 BC which ruled the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kingdoms throughout the Hellenistic period from 230 BC to 10 AD, upon the death of its last ruler, Strato III in Gandhara. For the genealogy of this dynasty, see Family tree of the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kings.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Tarn, William Woodthorpe (1966). The Greeks in Bactria and India (2 ed.). New York, U.S.: Cambridge University Press. p. 568. ISBN   9781108009416 . Retrieved 30 December 2024.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Narain, A.K. (1957). The Indo-Greeks: Revisited and Supplemented (4 ed.). Delhi, India: B.R. Publishing Corporation. p. 305. ISBN   9788176463492 . Retrieved 30 December 2024.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Narain, A. K. (1970). Astin, Alan E. (ed.). The Cambridge ancient history. 8: Rome and the Mediterranean to 133 B.C. (2. ed., [reprint.] ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 406. ISBN   978-0-521-23448-1.
  4. ↑ Christopoulos, Lucas (September 2022). "SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS: Dionysian Rituals and the Golden Zeus of China" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.: University of Pennsylvania. pp. 84–86. Retrieved 4 January 2025. The most surprising discovery I made in my research is that the "Hu" (胡) son of Qinshi Huangdi, Hu Hai (胡亥 229–207 BC), most likely was the son of a princess offered by the Greco-Bactrians during that alliance (epigamia). The name of Hu Hai's mother was "the Hu Princess" (Hu Ji 胡姬), and information about her is surprisingly sparse in the Chinese historical records. Normally, when Hu Hai came to the throne, his mother would have received the posthumous title (fenghao 封号) of "empress dowager" (Huang Taihou 皇太后), and women in that position were usually very active in politics. But she did not, and shows no such activity. This is strange to the point of being abnormal in the ruling class of the Qin. The reason is probably that she was a princess of the Euthydemid family, and, in the eyes of the Qin aristocracy, a "Hu," or a "foreigner." That is why she was not completely included in the royal dynastic system. The "Hu Princess" bore Hu Hai in 229 BC. Euthydemos must had made an alliance with the "king of Qin," who
  5. ↑ Christopoulos, Lucas (September 2022). "SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS: Dionysian Rituals and the Golden Zeus of China" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.: University of Pennsylvania. pp. 84–86. Retrieved 4 January 2025. The most surprising discovery I made in my research is that the "Hu" (胡) son of Qinshi Huangdi, Hu Hai (胡亥 229–207 BC), most likely was the son of a princess offered by the Greco-Bactrians during that alliance (epigamia). The name of Hu Hai's mother was "the Hu Princess" (Hu Ji 胡姬), and information about her is surprisingly sparse in the Chinese historical records. Normally, when Hu Hai came to the throne, his mother would have received the posthumous title (fenghao 封号) of "empress dowager" (Huang Taihou 皇太后), and women in that position were usually very active in politics. But she did not, and shows no such activity. This is strange to the point of being abnormal in the ruling class of the Qin. The reason is probably that she was a princess of the Euthydemid family, and, in the eyes of the Qin aristocracy, a "Hu," or a "foreigner." That is why she was not completely included in the royal dynastic system. The "Hu Princess" bore Hu Hai in 229 BC. Euthydemos must had made an alliance with the "king of Qin," who was about thirty at that period, in 230 BC.
  6. ↑ Christopoulos, Lucas (September 2022). "SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS: Dionysian Rituals and the Golden Zeus of China" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.: University of Pennsylvania. p. 88. Retrieved 6 January 2025. King Xiutu, the "Savior," was the last king of the Euthydemid dynasty to rule in Gansu and was allied with the Xiongnu.
  7. ↑ Paranavithana, Senarath (1971). The Greeks and the Mauryas. Colombo, Sri Lanka: Lake House Investments. p. 84. ISBN   9780842607933 . Retrieved 10 January 2025.
  8. ↑ Senior, R.C. (2001). Indo-Scythian Coins and History: Volume IV - Supplement, Additional Coins and Hoards; the Sequences of Indo-Greek and Indo-Scythian Kings. Lancaster, PA: Classical Numismatic Group Inc. p. xxxvi. ISBN   0970926863 . Retrieved 1 January 2025.
  9. ↑ Tarn, William Woodthorpe (1966). The Greeks in Bactria and India (2 ed.). New York, U.S.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 96, 101, 211, 449, 484. ISBN   9781108009416 . Retrieved 1 January 2025.
  10. ↑ Tarn, William Woodthorpe (1966). The Greeks in Bactria and India (2 ed.). New York, U.S.: Cambridge University Press. p. 449. ISBN   9781108009416 . Retrieved 1 January 2025.
  11. ↑ Tarn, William Woodthorpe (1966). The Greeks in Bactria and India (2 ed.). New York, U.S.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 100–101. ISBN   9781108009416 . Retrieved 1 January 2025.
  12. ↑ Qian, Sima; Watson, Burton (1961). Records of the Grand Historian of China, Translated from the Shih Chi of Sima Qian, Volume II. New York, U.S.: Columbia University Press. ISBN   0-231-08167-7 . Retrieved 1 January 2025.
  13. ↑ Under each king, information from Bopearachchi is taken from Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, Catalogue Raisonné (1991) or occasionally SNG9 (1998). Senior's chronology is from The Indo-Greek and Indo-Scythian king sequences in the second and first centuries BC, ONS179 Supplement (2004), whereas the comments (down to the time of Hippostratos) are from The decline of the Indo-Greeks (1998).
  14. ↑ O. Bopearachchi, "Monnaies gréco-bactriennes et indo-grecques, Catalogue raisonné", Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, 1991, p. 453
  15. ↑ History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE – 100 CE, Sonya Rhie Quintanilla, BRILL, 2007, p. 9
  16. ↑ "The COININDIA Coin Galleries: Greek: Apollodotus I (Apollodotos I)". coinindia.com. Retrieved 2024-06-29.

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