Gender inequality in the United Kingdom

Last updated

Gender inequality is any situation in which people are not treated equally on the basis of gender. In the United Kingdom, some people say women are unequally impacted by economic policies, face different levels of media attention, and face inequality in education and employment, which includes a persistent national gender pay gap. Furthermore, according to numerous sources, there exists a pervasive lad culture which has decreased the ability of women to participate in different parts of society.

Contents

In response to gender inequality, the state has introduced various pieces of legislation, intended to protect individuals against sex-based discrimination and mandating equal pay for equal work.

Legislation

In response to the concerns, the government has implemented various legislation, especially concerning gender discrimination, both institutional and personal, in the workplace; the Sex Discrimination Act of 1975 protects individuals from being discriminated against in employment, vocational training, education, the provision and sale of goods, facilities and services, premises and the exercise of public functions due to their sex/gender; this was amended by the Sex Discrimination (Election Candidates) Act 2002. The Equal Pay Act of 1970 mandates equal pay for equal work regardless of an individual's sex/gender, and the Sex Discrimination (Gender Reassignment) Regulations 1999 also protect the rights of individuals who intend to undergo, are undergoing, or have undergone sex reassignment. These Regulations pertain to pay and treatment in employment, self-employment and vocational training.

The Equality Acts of 2006 and 2010 served to codify and combine all equality enactments within Great Britain, and provide comparable protections across all equality strands.

The Equality and Human Rights Commission (EHRC) is a non-departmental public body which has responsibility for the promotion and enforcement of equality and non-discrimination laws in England, Scotland and Wales, while the Government Equalities Office is a government department charged with promoting and improving gender equality within the UK government itself, responsible for leading the Discrimination Law Review, and providing advice on all other forms of equality to other UK government departments. The GEO was formerly known as the Women and Equality Unit.

Issues

Culture

It has increasingly been observed [1] [2] that a pervasive 'lad culture' has developed in the U.K., described as an ironic, self-conscious method for young males to adopt "an anti-intellectual position, scorning sensitivity and caring in favour of drinking, violence, and a pre-feminist attitude to women as both sex objects and creatures from another species". [1] In April 2014, the UN special rapporteur on violence against women similarly concluded that Britain has a "boys' club sexist culture". [3]

The culture has attracted wide criticism from feminist circles; Germaine Greer critiques it in her 2000 book The Whole Woman, [4] [5] [6] while Kira Cochrane asserts that "it's a dark world that Loaded and the lad culture has bequeathed us". [7]

Commentators believe that lad culture has affected politics and decreased the ability of women to participate, [8] and studies of industries such as the architecture profession found that lad culture had a negative impact on women completing their professional education. [9]

In April 2012, British feminist writer Laura Bates founded the Everyday Sexism Project, a website and social media presence whose aim is to document everyday examples of sexism as reported by contributors; the submissions are then collated by a small group of volunteers led by Emer O'Toole, a researcher at Royal Holloway, University of London. By April 2013 the site had collected 25,000 entries from 15 countries. [10]

Media

Various U.K. media institutions have been labelled problematic with regards to sexism and gender discrimination - most notably being the Page 3 feature found in the British tabloid newspaper The Sun , which once consisted of a large photograph of a topless female glamour model usually published on the newspaper's third page. In August 2012, the No More Page 3 campaign emerged, sparking widespread discussion and receiving heavy support from Green MP Caroline Lucas [11] and cross-party support from over 140 other MPs. [12]

A YouGov survey in October 2012 found differences in attitude toward Page 3 among readers of different newspapers; 61% of Sun readers wished to retain the feature, while 24 percent said that the newspaper should stop showing Page 3 women. However, only 4% of Guardian readers said The Sun should keep Page 3, while 86% said it should be abolished. The poll also found wide differences by gender, with 48% of men overall saying that Page 3 should be retained, but just 17% of women taking that position. [13]

Employment

The U.K. has a persistent gender pay gap, the most significant factors associated with which are part-time work, education, the size of the firm from which the sample is taken, and occupational segregation (women are under-represented in managerial and high-paying professional occupations.) [14] When comparing full-time roles, men in the U.K. tend to work slightly longer hours than women in full-time employment. Depending on the age bracket and percentile of hours worked men in full-time employment work between 1.35% and 17.94% more hours than women in full-time employment. [15] Even when taking the differences in hours worked into account, a pay gap still exists in the U.K., and typically increases with age and earnings percentile. [16]

In 2015, 1.1% of men and 3% of women perceived gender-based discrimination in their workplace. [17]

Education

Inequality in the context of education has greater implications in terms of future employment. Elements of the school curriculum still advocate certain gender-specific practices.

Boys lag behind girls at important educational milestones. At Key Stage 2 girls outperform boys. The proportion of students achieving level 4 and above in reading, writing and maths, in 2015, in England, was 77% boys compared to 83% girls. The gap is wider for students who receive a free school meal. [18]

Girls outperform boys in headline GCSE results. In state-funded schools, the gap in those achieving 5+ grades a*-C including English and maths is around 10 percentage points. [18]

Young women are more likely to enrol at university. In 2016 the gender gap in favour of women was the highest on record. "In England, young women are 36% more likely to apply to university and when both sexes are from disadvantaged backgrounds young women are 58% more likely to apply." [19]

Relationship Education has been compulsory in the U.K. at both primary and secondary level since September 2020, but parents have a right to withdraw their child from Sex Education [20] and in England and Wales, the optional curriculum focuses mainly on biological areas such as the reproductive system, foetal development, and the physical changes of adolescence, while information about contraception and safe sex is discretionary [21] and discussion about relationships and gender roles is often neglected. [22]

In April 2014, Bates remarked that "better sex and relationships education in schools is desperately needed" to teach areas around "healthy relationships, consent, respect and sexual abuse" in response to tackling everyday sexism earlier in life. [23]

Economic policy

In England, austerity disproportionately affects women, because women use more public services and are the majority of welfare recipients. [24] [25] \

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexism</span> Prejudice or discrimination based on a persons sex or gender

Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on one's sex or gender. Sexism can affect anyone, but primarily affects women and girls. It has been linked to gender roles and stereotypes, and may include the belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to another. Extreme sexism may foster sexual harassment, rape, and other forms of sexual violence. Discrimination in this context is defined as discrimination toward people based on their gender identity or their gender or sex differences. An example of this is workplace inequality. Sexism may arise from social or cultural customs and norms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sex segregation</span> Physical, legal, and cultural separation of people according to their biological sex

Sex segregation, sex separation, sex partition,gender segregation,gender separation, or gender partition is the physical, legal, or cultural separation of people according to their biological sex at any age. Sex segregation can refer simply to the physical and spatial separation by sex without any connotation of illegal discrimination. In other circumstances, sex segregation can be controversial. Depending on the circumstances, it can be a violation of capabilities and human rights and can create economic inefficiencies; on the other hand, some supporters argue that it is central to certain religious laws and social and cultural histories and traditions.

Equal pay for equal work is the concept of labour rights that individuals in the same workplace be given equal pay. It is most commonly used in the context of sexual discrimination, in relation to the gender pay gap. Equal pay relates to the full range of payments and benefits, including basic pay, non-salary payments, bonuses and allowances. Some countries have moved faster than others in addressing equal pay.

Gender inequality is the social phenomenon in which people are not treated equally on the basis of gender. This inequality can be caused by gender discrimination or sexism. The treatment may arise from distinctions regarding biology, psychology, or cultural norms prevalent in the society. Some of these distinctions are empirically grounded, while others appear to be social constructs. While current policies around the world cause inequality among individuals, it is women who are most affected. Gender inequality weakens women in many areas such as health, education, and business life. Studies show the different experiences of genders across many domains including education, life expectancy, personality, interests, family life, careers, and political affiliation. Gender inequality is experienced differently across different cultures and also affects non-binary people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Occupational sexism</span> Discrimination based on the sex in a place of employment

Occupational sexism is discrimination based on a person's sex that occurs in a place of employment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Equality Act 2010</span> UK law

The Equality Act 2010, often erroneously called the Equalities Act 2010, is an act of Parliament of the United Kingdom passed during the Brown ministry with the primary purpose of consolidating, updating and supplementing the numerous prior Acts and Regulations, that formed the basis of anti-discrimination law in mostly England, Scotland and Wales; some sections also apply to Northern Ireland. These consisted, primarily, of the Equal Pay Act 1970, the Sex Discrimination Act 1975, the Race Relations Act 1976, the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 and three major statutory instruments protecting discrimination in employment on grounds of religion or belief, sexual orientation and age.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sex differences in education</span> Educational discrimination on the basis of sex

Sex differences in education are a type of sex discrimination in the education system affecting both men and women during and after their educational experiences. Men are more likely to be literate on a global average, although higher literacy scores for women are prevalent in many countries. Women are more likely to achieve a tertiary education degree compared to men of the same age. Men tended to receive more education than women in the past, but the gender gap in education has reversed in recent decades in most Western countries and many non-Western countries.

Gender inequality in India refers to health, education, economic and political inequalities between men and women in India. Various international gender inequality indices rank India differently on each of these factors, as well as on a composite basis, and these indices are controversial.

This is a list of topics related to the issue of masculism, men's liberation, the men's movement, and men's rights:

The feminist movement has affected change in Western society, including women's suffrage; greater access to education; more equitable pay with men; the right to initiate divorce proceedings; the right of women to make individual decisions regarding pregnancy ; and the right to own property.

Gender pay gap in Australia looks at the persistence of a gender pay gap in Australia. In Australia, the principle of "equal pay for equal work" was introduced in 1969. Anti-discrimination on the basis of sex was legislated in 1984.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gender inequality in China</span>

In 2021, China ranked 48th out of 191 countries on the United Nations Development Programme's Gender Inequality Index (GII). Among the GII components, China's maternal mortality ratio was 32 out of 100,000 live births. In education 58.7 percent of women age 25 and older had completed secondary education, while the counterpart statistic for men was 71.9 percent. Women's labour power participation rate was 63.9 percent, and women held 23.6 percent of seats in the National People's Congress. In 2019, China ranked 39 out of the 162 countries surveyed during the year.

In South Korea, gender inequality is derived from deeply rooted patriarchal ideologies with specifically defined gender-roles. While it remains especially prevalent in South Korea's economy and politics, gender inequality has decreased in healthcare and education.

Gender inequality in the United States has been diminishing throughout its history and significant advancements towards equality have been made beginning mostly in the early 1900s. However, despite this progress, gender inequality in the United States continues to persist in many forms, including the disparity in women's political representation and participation, occupational segregation, and the unequal distribution of household labor. The alleviation of gender inequality has been the goal of several major pieces of legislation since 1920 and continues to the present day. As of 2021, the World Economic Forum ranks the United States 30th in terms of gender equality out of 149 countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gender pay gap</span> Average difference in remuneration amounts between men and women

The gender pay gap or gender wage gap is the average difference between the remuneration for men and women who are working. Women are generally found to be paid less than men. There are two distinct numbers regarding the pay gap: non-adjusted versus adjusted pay gap. The latter typically takes into account differences in hours worked, occupations chosen, education and job experience. In the United States, for example, the non-adjusted average woman's annual salary is 79–83% of the average man's salary, compared to 95–99% for the adjusted average salary.

Gender equality is the notion that each gender should receive equal treatment in all aspects of life, and that one should not be discriminated based on their sex. Gender equality is a human right, which is recognised under the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

The gender pay gap in New Zealand is the difference in the median hourly wages of men and women in New Zealand. In 2020 the gender pay gap is 9.5%. It is an economic indicator used to measure pay equality. The gender pay gap is an official statistic published annually by Stats NZ sourced from the Household Labour Force Survey.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women's empowerment</span> Giving rights, freedom to make decisions and strengthening women to stand on their own

Women's empowerment may be defined in several ways, including accepting women's viewpoints, making an effort to seek them and raising the status of women through education, awareness, literacy, and training. Women's empowerment equips and allows women to make life-determining decisions through the different societal problems. They may have the opportunity to re-define gender roles or other such roles, which allow them more freedom to pursue desired goals.

Gender pay gap in India refers to the difference in earnings between women and men in the paid employment and the labor market. For the year 2013, the gender pay gap in India was estimated to be 24.81%. Further, while analyzing the level of female participation in the economy, this report slots India as one of the bottom 10 countries on its list. Thus, in addition to unequal pay, there is also unequal representation, because while women constitute almost half the Indian population, their representation in the work force amounts to only about one-fourth of the total.

Even in the modern era, gender inequality remains an issue in Japan. In 2015, the country had a per-capita income of US$38,883, ranking 22nd of the 188 countries, and No. 18 in the Human Development Index. In the 2019 Gender Inequality Index report, it was ranked 17th out of the participating 162 countries, ahead of Germany, the UK and the US, performing especially well on the reproductive health and higher education attainment indices. Despite this, gender inequality still exists in Japan due to the persistence of gender norms in Japanese society rooted in traditional religious values and government reforms. Gender-based inequality manifests in various aspects from the family, or ie, to political representation, to education, playing particular roles in employment opportunities and income, and occurs largely as a result of defined roles in traditional and modern Japanese society. Inequality also lies within divorce of heterosexual couples and the marriage of same sex couples due to both a lack of protective divorce laws and the presence of restrictive marriage laws. In consequence to these traditional gender roles, self-rated health surveys show variances in reported poor health, population decline, reinforced gendered education and social expectations, and inequalities in the LGBTQ+ community.

References

  1. 1 2 Knowles, in Kristina Nelson, Narcissism in High Fidelity (2004) p. 19 ISBN   0595318045
  2. ↑ Genz, Stéphanie; Brabon, Benjamin A. (2009). Postfeminism: Cultural Texts and Theories. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN   9780748635801.
  3. ↑ Morrison, Sarah (5 December 2010). "Boys' club Britain is more sexist than Italy, Azerbaijan and India, says UN human rights expert". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 2012-09-05. Retrieved 16 April 2014.
  4. ↑ Tim Edwards (2006). Cultures of Masculinity . Routledge. pp.  39–42. ISBN   0-415-28480-5.
  5. ↑ Pamela Abbott; Claire Wallace; Melissa Tyler (2005). An Introduction to Sociology: Feminist Perspectives . Routledge. p.  354. ISBN   0-415-31258-2.
  6. ↑ Jackson, C. (2006). Lads and Ladettes in School: Gender and a Fear of Failure. Maidenhead: Open University Press. ISBN   0335225918.
  7. ↑ Kira Cochrane, "The dark world of lads' mags". Newstatesman.com. Retrieved on 2012-12-16.
  8. ↑ Wilkinson, Helen (1998-08-07). "The day I fell out of love with Blair". New Statesman . Vol. 127. pp. 9–10.
  9. ↑ Gates, Charlie (2003-07-11). "Lad culture forces women to quit: RIBA-funded study looks at reasons behind profession's high female drop-out rate". Building Design. Vol. 1587. p. 3.
  10. ↑ Bates, Laura. "The Everyday Sexism Project: a year of shouting back", The Guardian, 16 April 2013.
  11. ↑ BBC, news (12 June 2013). "Caroline Lucas in Page Three T-shirt protest during debate". BBC news. Retrieved 12 June 2013.{{cite news}}: |first= has generic name (help)
  12. ↑ "Letter to the Editor signed by MPS - No More Page 3 - Because Boobs Aren't News". nomorepage3.org. Archived from the original on 1 November 2014. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
  13. ↑ "Survey Report" (PDF). YouGov / The Sun Survey Results. YouGov. Retrieved 23 August 2013.
  14. ↑ Thomson, Victoria (October 2006). "How Much of the Remaining Gender Pay Gap is the Result of Discrimination, and How Much is Due to Individual Choices?" (PDF). International Journal of Urban Labour and Leisure. 7 (2). Retrieved September 26, 2012.
  15. ↑ Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, 2013 Provisional Results http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-328216
  16. ↑ A Look At The Gender Pay Gap By Age And Earning Power | http://www.octopus-hr.co.uk/hrmoz/article/the-gender-pay-gap-by-age-and-earning-power.aspx#sthash.IL6IGoYj.dpuf
  17. ↑ "Discrimination against men at work: Experiences in five countries" (PDF). euagenda.eu.
  18. 1 2 House of Commons Library International Men's Day Briefing
  19. ↑ "University and college applicant numbers rise by 0.2%, UCAS reports today". UCAS. 2016-02-03. Retrieved 2016-12-08.
  20. ↑ "Relationships, Sex and Health Education". neu.org.uk. National Education Union.
  21. ↑ Education Act 1996 Archived July 9, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
  22. ↑ Britain: Sex Education Under Fire UNESCO Courier;Jul/Aug2000, Vol. 53 Issue 7/8, pp. 17-18
  23. ↑ Cresci, Elena; Bates, Laura (1 April 2014). "Everyday Sexism: Live Q&A with Laura Bates". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 17 April 2014.
  24. ↑ Raynor, Ruth (2021). "Hopes multiplied amidst decline: Understanding gendered precarity in times of austerity". Environment and Planning D: Society and Space. 39 (3): 553–570. doi: 10.1177/0263775821993826 . ISSN   0263-7758. S2CID   233958169.
  25. ↑ Brah, Avtar; Szeman, Ioana; Gedalof, Irene (2015). "Introduction: Feminism and the Politics of Austerity". Feminist Review. 109 (1): 1–7. doi:10.1057/fr.2014.59. ISSN   0141-7789. S2CID   144476353.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.