The oldest rocks, of Silurian age, occur as a broad, northeast to southwest aligned anticline in the heart of the county. The central portion of this zone, between Usk and Pontypool, comprises the outcrop of the older shales, limestones and sandstones and, surrounded as it is by outcrops of younger rocks, is traditionally referred to as the Usk Inlier. These younger rocks are a mix of sandstones and mudstones of Devonian age and commonly referred to as the Old Red Sandstone or, colloquially the 'ORS'. The oldest rocks of the ORS sequence (and hence lowest in the sequence), the mudstones of the Raglan Mudstone Formation, are also assigned to the Silurian period, though were once considered to be Devonian. Towards the eastern, southeastern and western margins of the county are successive layers of rocks of Carboniferous age. The oldest of these and hence the lowest, resting directly on the ORS are various formations of the Carboniferous Limestone. These in turn are overlain, in the west, by the sandstones and mudstones of the Marros Group (formerly referred to as the 'Millstone Grit series') and lastly by the sandstones, mudstones and coal seams of the South Wales Coal Measures.
Along the southern coastal strip are rocks of Triassic age which unconformably overlie the Devonian and Carboniferous rocks. An area of countryside at Llanwern, east of Newport is characterised by rocks of Jurassic age, the youngest solid rocks which occur within the county. Similar though smaller outcrops of Jurassic rocks can be found at Goldcliff on the Severn Estuary and also, concealed beneath more recent sediments, near the mouth of the Ebbw River south of Newport.
There is an inlier of rocks of Silurian age in the heart of the county, west of Usk and straddling the River Usk and known accordingly as the Usk Inlier. These rocks consist of a thick sequence (over 600m / 2000ft) assigned to the Přídolí, Ludlow and Wenlock series. The oldest parts of the succession, the Wenlock Shales and Wenlock Limestone of early authors are now referred to as the Glascoed Mudstone, Ton Siltstone and Usk Limestone. Together these comprise the local Wenlock succession. Above these are the former Lower Ludlow Shales, now the Lower and Upper Forest Beds, and the Aymestry Limestone, now the Lower Llanbadoc Beds. The Upper Llanbadoc Beds and Lower, Middle and Upper Llangibby Beds (collectively forming the larger part of the former Upper Ludlow Shales) complete the Ludlow series. All of these rocks are of marine origin, their lithologies suggestive of a variety of deep and shallow water environments during deposition. The uppermost Silurian rocks are the Downton Castle Sandstone and the overlying Raglan Mudstones, both of Přídolían age. The Přídolían rocks were deposited in various coastal and floodplain environments.[3]
Devonian
Within Monmouthshire, the Devonian consists entirely of the Old Red Sandstone. It is widespread in its occurrence from the Black Mountains in the north, wrapping around either side of the centrally located Usk Inlier and extending in a strip north of Newport towards Cardiff. Traditionally divided into three parts, the lowermost Red Marl Group, the middle Red Sandstone Group and uppermost Quartz Conglomerate Group, modern classification of the sequence recognises the St Maughans Formation (which directly overlies the Raglan Mudstone Formation), the Senni Formation and the Brownstones Formation (these three comprising the Lower Devonian) together with the Plateau Beds Formation and Quartz Conglomerate Group of the Upper Devonian.
The relatively hard-wearing sandstones of the Brownstones Formation form the greater part of the Black Mountains ridges of Hatterrall Hill and Chwarel y Fan and the conspicuous hills of Sugar Loaf, Ysgyryd Fawr and Bryn Arw. The Brownstones also give rise to a major landscape feature in eastern Monmouthshire, a sinuous though largely unbroken west and northwest-facing escarpment which runs from the Wye Valley at Monmouth south and southwest to Newport and forming the hills at Trellech, Devauden and at Wentwood. Graig Syfyrddin forms a westerly outlier of this scarp.[4] South of Gaer Wood, west of Trellech, it forms a significant watershed with streams running west, draining into the Usk catchment.
The uppermost Devonian age pebbly conglomerates of the Quartz Conglomerate Formation give rise in the east of the county to a secondary, though less pronounced scarp which provides this part of Monmouthshire with its highest elevation, the 306m / 1003ft high flat-topped eminence of Beacon Hill.
Carboniferous
Carboniferous rocks occur most widely in the west of the county where the deeply dissected plateau of the South Wales Coalfield consists of the Coal Measures sandstones, mudstones and of course, coal seams - all of Westphalian age. The plateau is edged by the outcrop of the Namurian age Millstone Grit and the Dinantian age Carboniferous Limestone. The Carboniferous Limestone also occurs widely in the southeast of the county and along the sides of the Wye Valley.
Carboniferous Limestone
The limestone of South Wales is subdivided into a number of individual formations, not all of which are present in Monmouthshire and some that are, are notably thinner here than is the case further to the west. Those which outcrop on the north and east facing scarp which forms the edge of the coalfield dip into the coalfield at increasingly steep angles as the outcrop is traced south from Blorenge through Pontypool to the northeastern edge of Cardiff. The outcrop was extensively quarried in the past particularly around Gilwern Hill and Blorenge, in connection with the former ironworking industry.
Marros Group
Referred to traditionally as the Millstone Grit (Series), the group comprises a basal sandstone overlain by mudstones. The sandstone, formerly known as the Basal Grit but now known formally as the Twrch Sandstone outcrops around Blorenge but can be difficult to distinguish from the overlying sandstone.
South Wales Coal Measures
The Coal Measures occupy the majority of the western part of the historic county, today's Caerphilly and Blaenau Gwent unitary districts and half of Torfaen. Though now defunct, the legacy of the coal industry in this area is considerable. A sandstone extends widely across the area near the base of the Lower Coal Measures and is overlain by coal and ironstone-rich strata. The uppermost Coal Measures are again dominated by sandstone, the Pennant Sandstone forming the tops of the hills between the 'coalfield valleys'. Recent changes in stratigraphic nomenclature place these sandstones within the Warwickshire Group.[5]
Triassic
The almost flat-lying sandstones of the Triassic unconformably overlie the older rocks which tend to dip to the south. The Triassic sandstones are often known as the New Red Sandstone thereby distinguishing them from the Devonian age Old Red Sandstone. The uppermost beds of the Triassic are the Rhaetian age 'Rhaetic' which occur in the Llanwern and Wilcrick areas and at Goldcliff.[6] At Black Rock near Portskewett are seaweed-covered outcrops of sandstone which form a part of the Mercia Mudstone Group. It was beneath these rocks and through the underlying Pennant Sandstone that the Severn Tunnel was driven between 1873 and 1886 from nearby Sudbrook.
Jurassic
A small outlier of Jurassic age strata occurs east of Newport as does a rather smaller one on the coast at Goldcliff. They comprise rocks assigned to the Lias. The cliff exposure here was commented upon by Gerald of Wales in 1188: Not far hence is a rocky eminence, impending over the Severn, call . . . Gouldcliffe or golden rock, because from the reflections of the sun's rays it assumes a bright golden colour.
Origins of the Wye gorge
The origins of the deeply incised gorge of the River Wye which forms Monmouthshire's eastern border continue to be discussed. One proposal, that of superimposed drainage is that during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, sedimentary rocks similar in part to those found in the Cotswolds, were laid down across the area, burying the older Carboniferous Limestone. During the succeeding Tertiary period, an early version of the Wye flowed across the area, which at that time formed a flat coastal plain, and developed large meanders as it did so. When the land in the area subsequently began to rise relative to sea level the river was able to maintain its course by cutting down into its bed, so incising its course. In time the younger rocks were eroded away entirely whilst the river began to cut down through the underlying Carboniferous rock succession, as revealed in the sometimes craggy sides of the gorge today. Another theory for its formation involves the erosive power of debris-laden glacial meltwater escaping from proglacial lakes.[7][8]
Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are limited to a couple of very minor intrusions of monchiquite in the Old Red Sandstone to the southeast of Usk. There appears however to be a common (and mistaken) belief amongst non-geologists that Sugar Loaf is an extinct volcano. Nevertheless, it is formed entirely of sedimentary rocks but has been eroded into a shape which, particularly when viewed from the east, is reminiscent of a stratovolcano.
Structure
There are numerous faults which affect the Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous rocks of the county. They are most numerous, or at least have been most intensively mapped, within the Coalfield area. The majority in this area are aligned northwest to southeast.
In the north, the major fracture known as the Neath Disturbance cuts north-east trending through the Old Red Sandstone to the north of Sugar Loaf and thence along the Monnow valley to its east. It is the southernmost major tectonic feature of the British Caledonide belt,[9] though was active again in the later Variscan orogeny. Three roughly north-south aligned reverse faults are recognised in the Chepstow-Caldicot area.
Quaternary
Glacial legacy
There is clear evidence for glaciation of the uplands in the west of the county having taken place on one or more occasions. The Vale of Ewyas in the Black Mountains and the Sirhowy Valley, Rhymney Valley, Ebbw Vale and the valley of the Ebbw Fach in the Coalfield bear the hallmarks of glacial excavation - U-shaped profiles and over-steepened sides. There are moreover stretches of glacial till spread across their flanks. Substantial moraines are evident in the Usk valley including the Nevill Hall/Llanfoist moraine south of Abergavenny and the Usk Moraine which is believed to represent the furthest advance of an Usk valley glacier during the last Ice Age.
The Punchbowl is a well-developed glacial cirque on the eastern side of Blorenge.[10] There are no indications that Cwm Craf on its northern side held a glacier but it is perhaps periglacial in origin.
Landslips
Coalfield and fringes
Landslips are common on the steep sides of the coalfield valleys where a combination of glacial over-deepening and the presence of the Pennant Sandstone overlying weaker mudstones has provided favourable conditions for ground movement. Mining activity has reactivated ancient landslips in certain cases. Slips are especially common around Coity Mountain and within the Sirhowy and the two Ebbw valleys. On the northeastern fringe of the coalfield, there are slips in the vicinity of Blorenge, the most well-known of which is the Tumble through which the B4246 road climbs towards Keeper's Pond.
A notable example of mass movement is Mynydd Henllys, west of Cwmbran where a large section of the mountain has slipped northwestwards into the post-glacially deepened valley of the Nant Cam, leaving a 2km long degraded fissure feature high on the eastern slopes. It owes its origin to a mass of sandstone slipping in rotational fashion on a surface approximating to the Brithdir coal seam and associated mudstones and seatearths.[11]
Black Mountains
The Black Mountains and nearby lesser hills formed from the Old Red Sandstone are formed from interlayered sandstones and less competent mudstones with the whole typically dipping southwards. The rocks are fractured in places and valley sides have been oversteepened by the passage of glacial ice. Various combinations of these circumstances has led to large numbers of landslips having taken place over millennia. Major slips are apparent on the western flanks of Ysgyryd Fawr and also affecting its southern ridge. Slips occur on either side of Cwm Coedycerrig with the largest affecting the southeastern slopes of Gaer on the north side. The landslipped material fills the valley floor. Smaller slips are evident on the northern slopes of the Sugar Loaf though the largest on that hill is at Graig where a spur extends towards the River Usk. Cwmyoy village famous for the crooked nature of St Martins Church sits on a landslip extending down from Hatterrall Hill which is still moving, albeit slowly. Nearby is the large sandstone cliff of the Darren, the back wall of another large slip. Further slips are evident within the Vale of Ewyas including the ground which rises to the east above Llanthony Priory.
Further east in lowland Monmouthshire, though affecting the same rock strata, landslips are recorded around Graig Syfyrddin and towards the Monnow valley as at Coed y Pwll northwest of Skenfrith.[12]
Wye valley
The deep incision of the Wye into the landscape on Monmouthshire’s eastern border has left slopes open to landslip. Two significant examples are seen between St Arvans and Tintern where Black Cliff and Wyndcliff represent the back walls of broad slips which extend down to the riverbank. Both crags are formed from strata of the Black Rock Limestone Subgroup (traditionally referred to as the 'Lower Dolomite'). It sits atop the less competent strata of the Avon Group (traditionally the 'Lower Limestone Shale') which has collapsed under the loading.[13][14][15] The A466 road runs through the middle of both slips.
Alluvium
The floodplains of each of the major river valleys within the county are floored by fluviatile alluvium. The most extensive is that of the River Usk though this narrows for a couple of miles south of Llanfihangel nigh Usk. Those of the River Monnow and Afon Lwyd are up to 350m wide in places whilst that of the Trothy is rather narrower. In contrast there are wide spreads of these deposits around the smaller Olway Brook from Raglan southwards. Alluvial flats are restricted within the Wye valley as the river has cut itself a narrow gorge. The Coalfield rivers show similarly restricted floodplain development, occupying as they do, valleys which have been cut largely by glacial action.[16][17]
There is evidence of river terrace development along the course of both the Usk and the Wye.
There are extensive deposits of estuarine alluvium on the shores of the Severn. The bulk of this is in the form of silt of a blue/grey colour. The reclaimed estuarine flats behind the modern sea defences are as much as 5km in width east of Newport. Tidal flats extend considerably into the Severn estuary.[18]
Artificial ground
Within the coalfield, as a result of mining activities, there are a number of areas of artificially made ground, consisting for the most part of spoil from both opencasting for coal and deep mining. A high profile example is that of the Canada Tips, an area of excavation and deposition of Coal Measures rocks north of Blaenavon associated in particular with opencasting during the Second World War. It is now included within the Blaenavon Industrial LandscapeWorld Heritage Site. Other areas are formed by material such as slag from former ironworks.
Geoconservation and geotourism
An early appreciation of a landscape shaped by its geology was afforded to those who undertook the Wye Tour in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, a significant part of the Picturesque movement. The combination of towering limestone cliffs, wooded hillsides and cultural items such as Tintern Abbey contributed to the perceived sublime nature of the area. In more recent times (1971) it has been designated an area of outstanding natural beauty or AONB.
Some sites of special scientific interest within the county (or in a number of cases, straddling its boundaries) have been designated wholly or largely on geological grounds, an example being the Upper Wye Gorge SSSI. Other sites have been recognised as regionally important geodiversity sites or RIGS. The World Heritage Site at Blaenavon (described above) is designated principally for its industrial heritage which is almost wholly based on the local extraction of coal, ironstone, limestone and silica rock for the production of iron. Accordingly it seeks to conserve and promote various of these sites.[19]
The hills and mountains of northwest Monmouthshire form a part of the Brecon Beacons National Park designated in 1957. Numerous publications list walks in the area visiting and interpreting the area's industrial archaeology centred on exploitation of its underlying geology.
Economic geology
Monmouthshire extends into the easternmost part of the South Wales Coalfield and accordingly there was historically considerable extractive industry in that area associated not just with coal mining but also workings for ironstone and indeed for limestone. The 'north crop' of the limestone was worked in a semi-continuous line of quarries eastwards from the border with the then county of Brecknock, now Powys. These quarries are found on the broadly north-facing scarps of Mynydd Llangatwg, Gilwern Hill and Blorenge. Substantial quarries also operated within the Clydach Gorge. Shallower workings followed the 'east crop' south from Blorenge along the eastern slopes of Mynydd y Garn-fawr and Mynydd Garnclochdy to Pontypool where the limestone strata is thinner than to the west. Most quarries were served either by tramroads connecting to the canal or else to ironworks such as those at Nantyglo. Limestone was also formerly worked in the Wye Valley on the county's eastern border. The Lower Dolomite was once quarried at Hadnock Quarry on the left (south) bank of the Wye, northeast of Monmouth as it was too at Livox Quarry north of Chepstow and at Beaufort Quarries south of Chepstow. All of these quarries are now abandoned.[20]
The Black Mountains are a group of hills spread across parts of Powys and Monmouthshire in southeast Wales, and extending across the England–Wales border into Herefordshire. They are the easternmost of the four ranges of hills that comprise the Brecon Beacons National Park, and are frequently confused with the westernmost, which is known as the Black Mountain. The Black Mountains may be roughly defined as those hills contained within a triangle defined by the towns of Abergavenny in the southeast, Hay-on-Wye in the north and the village of Llangors in the west. Other gateway towns to the Black Mountains include Talgarth and Crickhowell. The range of hills is well known to walkers and ramblers for the ease of access and views from the many ridge trails, such as that on the Black Hill (Herefordshire) at the eastern edge of the massif.
Blorenge, also called The Blorenge, is a prominent hill overlooking the valley of the River Usk near Abergavenny, Monmouthshire, southeast Wales. It is situated in the southeastern corner of the Brecon Beacons National Park. The summit plateau reaches a height of 1,841 feet (561 m).
Carboniferous Limestone is a collective term for the succession of limestones occurring widely throughout Great Britain and Ireland that were deposited during the Dinantian Epoch of the Carboniferous Period. These rocks formed between 363 and 325 million years ago. Within England and Wales, the entire limestone succession, which includes subordinate mudstones and some thin sandstones, is known as the Carboniferous Limestone Supergroup.
The geology of Cheshire in England consists mainly of Triassic sandstones and mudstones. To the north west of Cheshire, these rocks are heavily faulted and the underlying Carboniferous Coal Measures are thrown up. Around the areas of Poynton and Macclesfield, the coal is close to the surface and was easily mined. Below the Coal Measures is the Millstone Grit, which appears towards the Derbyshire border on the flanks of the Peak District dome.
The geology of Wales is complex and varied; its study has been of considerable historical significance in the development of geology as a science. All geological periods from the Cryogenian to the Jurassic are represented at outcrop, whilst younger sedimentary rocks occur beneath the seas immediately off the Welsh coast. The effects of two mountain-building episodes have left their mark in the faulting and folding of much of the Palaeozoic rock sequence. Superficial deposits and landforms created during the present Quaternary period by water and ice are also plentiful and contribute to a remarkably diverse landscape of mountains, hills and coastal plains.
Gloucestershire is one of the most geologically and scenically diverse counties in England, with rocks from the Precambrian through to the Jurassic represented. These varying rock-types are responsible for the three major areas of the county, each with its own distinctive scenery and land-use - the Forest of Dean in the west, bordering Wales, the Cotswolds in the east, and in between, the Severn Vale.
Pen Cerrig-calch is a subsidiary summit of Waun Fach in the Black Mountains in the Brecon Beacons National Park in southern Powys, Wales. Its summit, at a height of 701m (2,300 ft), is marked by a trig point. The peak sits high above the River Usk valley as it narrows above the small town of Crickhowell.The views from here are wide-ranging and extend as far as the Beacons themselves to the west. A ridge runs off to the northwest and the shoulder of Pen Gloch-y-pibwr then turns north to the secondary top of Pen Allt-mawr whose peak at 719m is also crowned by a trig point.
Fforest Fawr Geopark is a Geopark in the Brecon Beacons National Park, south Wales. It is the first designated Geopark in Wales having gained membership of both the European Geoparks Network and the UNESCO-assisted Global Network of National Geoparks in October 2005. The Geopark aims to promote and support sustainable tourism and other opportunities to improve the economy of the area whilst safeguarding the natural environment. Its aims largely coincide with the statutory duties and purpose of the National Park within which it sits.
An inlier is an area of older rocks surrounded by younger rocks. Inliers are typically formed by the erosion of overlying younger rocks to reveal a limited exposure of the older underlying rocks. Faulting or folding may also contribute to the observed outcrop pattern. A classic example from Great Britain is that of the inlier of folded Ordovician and Silurian rocks at Horton in Ribblesdale in North Yorkshire which are surrounded by the younger flat-lying Carboniferous Limestone. The location has long been visited by geology students and experts. Another example from South Wales is the Usk Inlier in Monmouthshire where Silurian age rocks are upfolded amidst Old Red Sandstone rocks of Devonian age.
The geology of Lancashire in northwest England consists in the main of Carboniferous age rocks but with Triassic sandstones and mudstones at or near the surface of the lowlands bordering the Irish Sea though these are largely obscured by Quaternary deposits.
The geology of Merseyside in northwest England largely consists of a faulted sequence of Carboniferous Coal Measures rocks overlain in the west by younger Triassic and Permian age sandstones and mudstones. Glaciation during the present Quaternary Period has left widespread glacial till as well as erosional landforms. Other post-glacial superficial deposits such as river and estuarine alluvium, peat and blown sand are abundant.
The geology of County Durham in northeast England consists of a basement of Lower Palaeozoic rocks overlain by a varying thickness of Carboniferous and Permo-Triassic sedimentary rocks which dip generally eastwards towards the North Sea. These have been intruded by a pluton, sills and dykes at various times from the Devonian Period to the Palaeogene. The whole is overlain by a suite of unconsolidated deposits of Quaternary age arising from glaciation and from other processes operating during the post-glacial period to the present. The geological interest of the west of the county was recognised by the designation in 2003 of the North Pennines Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty as a European Geopark.
The geology of Northumberland in northeast England includes a mix of sedimentary, intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks from the Palaeozoic and Cenozoic eras. Devonian age volcanic rocks and a granite pluton form the Cheviot massif. The geology of the rest of the county is characterised largely by a thick sequence of sedimentary rocks of Carboniferous age. These are intruded by both Permian and Palaeogene dykes and sills and the whole is overlain by unconsolidated sediments from the last ice age and the post-glacial period. The Whin Sill makes a significant impact on Northumberland's character and the former working of the Northumberland Coalfield significantly influenced the development of the county's economy. The county's geology contributes to a series of significant landscape features around which the Northumberland National Park was designated.
This article describes the geology of the Brecon Beacons National Park in mid/south Wales. The area gained national park status in 1957 with the designated area of 1,344 km2 (519 sq mi) including mountain massifs to both the east and west of the Brecon Beacons proper. The geology of the national park consists of a thick succession of sedimentary rocks laid down from the late Ordovician through the Silurian and Devonian to the late Carboniferous period. The rock sequence most closely associated with the park is the Old Red Sandstone from which most of its mountains are formed. The older parts of the succession, in the northwest, were folded and faulted during the Caledonian orogeny. Further faulting and folding, particularly in the south of the park is associated with the Variscan orogeny.
Mynydd Garnclochdy is a gentle summit on the long moorland ridge which extends south from Blorenge towards Pontypool and which defines the boundary between the modern county of Monmouthshire to the east and the county borough of Torfaen to the west though historically it was entirely within the traditional county of Monmouthshire. Its summit, at a height of 448 m (1407 ft), is marked by a small cairn. The summit and the eastern slopes of the hill fall within the Brecon Beacons National Park. A southern top of the hill, Mynydd Garn-wen achieves a height of 436m, and carries a trig point further south again at an elevation of 425m. To the north the broad moorland ridge runs via a poorly defined 425m top and a col at 404m elevation just south of a minor east–west road, into Mynydd y Garn-fawr, east of Blaenavon.
The geology of the Gower Peninsula in South Wales is central to its character and to its appeal to visitors. The peninsula is formed almost entirely from a faulted and folded sequence of Carboniferous rocks though both the earlier Old Red Sandstone and later New Red Sandstone are also present. Gower lay on the southern margin of the last ice sheet and has been a focus of interest for researchers and students in that respect too. Cave development and the use of some for early human occupation is a further significant aspect of the peninsula's scientific and cultural interest.
The Black Country UNESCO Global Geopark is a geopark in the Black Country, a part of the West Midlands region of England. Having previously been an ‘aspiring Geopark’, it was awarded UNESCO Global Geopark status on 10 July 2020.
The bedrock geology of Carmarthenshire in west Wales consists largely of Palaeozoic age sedimentary rocks. Unconsolidated deposits of Quaternary age in Carmarthenshire include a dissected cover of glacial till, valley floor alluvium and some scattered peat deposits in both upland and lowland settings. There are extensive beach and tidal flat deposits along the Carmarthenshire coast. The exploitation of the county's mineral riches, particularly coal and limestone, was a key part of the local economy through much of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
The geology of the Yorkshire Dales National Park in northern England largely consists of a sequence of sedimentary rocks of Ordovician to Permian age. The core area of the Yorkshire Dales is formed from a layer-cake of limestones, sandstones and mudstones laid down during the Carboniferous period. It is noted for its karst landscape which includes extensive areas of limestone pavement and large numbers of caves including Britain's longest cave network.
The geology of the Peak District National Park in England is dominated by a thick succession of faulted and folded sedimentary rocks of Carboniferous age. The Peak District is often divided into a southerly White Peak where Carboniferous Limestone outcrops and a northerly Dark Peak where the overlying succession of sandstones and mudstones dominate the landscape. The scarp and dip slope landscape which characterises the Dark Peak also extends along the eastern and western margins of the park. Although older rocks are present at depth, the oldest rocks which are to be found at the surface in the national park are dolomitic limestones of the Woo Dale Limestone Formation seen where Woo Dale enters Wye Dale east of Buxton.
↑ British Geological Survey 1:250,000 scale geological map The Rocks of Wales/Creigiau Cymru, 1st edn, Solid. NERC 1994
↑ Barclay, W.J. 1989 Geology of the South Wales Coalfield. Part II, the country around Abergavenny, 3rd edn. Mem Br Geol Survey Sheet 232 (England and Wales) (ch2)
↑ Barclay, W.J. 1989 Geology of the South Wales Coalfield. Part II, the country around Abergavenny, 3rd edn. Mem Br Geol Survey Sheet 232 (England and Wales) (ch3)
↑ Barclay, W.J. & Wilby, P.R. 2003 Geology of the Talgarth District; a brief explanation of the geological map. Sheet explanation of the British Geological Survey. 1:50,000 sheet 214 Talgarth (England and Wales).
↑ Barclay, W.J. 1989 Geology of the South Wales Coalfield. Part II, the country around Abergavenny, 3rd edn. Mem Br Geol Survey Sheet 232 (England and Wales) (Ch.8,p114)
↑ Squirrell, H.C; Downing, R.A. (1969). Geology of the South Wales Coalfield part 1 The Country around Newport (Mon.) (Thirded.). London: HMSO, NERC, Institute of Geological Sciences. pp.231–232. ISBN0118842560.
↑ "Geoindex". Geoindex Onshore. British Geological Survey. Retrieved 14 February 2020.
↑ Chepstow Sheet 250 (Map) (Solid and Drifted.). 1:50,000. England and Wales. Geological Survey of Great Britain. 1981.
↑ "Geoindex". Geoindex Onshore. British Geological Survey. Retrieved 14 February 2020.
↑ Barclay, W.J. 1989 Geology of the South Wales Coalfield. Part II, the country around Abergavenny, 3rd edn. Mem Br Geol Survey Sheet 232 (England and Wales) (Ch.8)
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