Head transplant

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A head transplant or full body transplant is an experimental surgical operation involving the grafting of one organism's head onto the body of another. In many experiments, the recipient's head has not been removed, but in others it has been. Experimentation in animals began in the early 1900s. As of 2024, no lasting successes have been achieved. [1] [2]

Contents

Medical challenges

There are three main technical challenges. As with any organ transplant, managing the immune response to avoid transplant rejection is necessary. Also, the brain is highly dependent on continuous flow of blood to provide oxygen and nutrients and remove waste products, with damage setting in quickly at normal temperatures when blood flow is cut off. Finally, managing the nervous systems in both the body and the head is essential, in several ways. The autonomic nervous system controls essential functions like breathing and the heart beating and is governed largely by the brain stem; if the recipient body's head is removed this can no longer function. Additionally each nerve coming out of the head via the spinal cord needs to be connected to the putatively corresponding nerve in the recipient body's spinal cord in order for the brain to control movement and receive sensory information. Finally, the risk of systematic neuropathic pain is high and as of 2017 had largely been unaddressed in research. [1]

Of these challenges, dealing with blood supply and transplant rejection have been addressed in the field of transplant medicine generally, making transplantation of several types of organs fairly routine; [1] however as of 2017 in a field as common as liver transplantation around a quarter of organs are rejected within the first year and overall mortality is still much higher than the general population. [3] The challenge of grafting the nervous system remained in early stages of research as of 2017. [1] [2]

History

Transplantation of a dog-head performed in the USSR by Vladimir Demikhov on 1954 Bundesarchiv Bild 183-61478-0004, Kopftransplantation durch Physiologen Demichow.jpg
Transplantation of a dog-head performed in the USSR by Vladimir Demikhov on 1954

Alexis Carrel was a French surgeon who had developed improved surgical methods to connect blood vessels in the context of organ transplantation. In 1908 he collaborated with the American Charles Claude Guthrie to attempt to graft the head of one dog on an intact second dog; the grafted head showed some reflexes early on but deteriorated quickly and the animal was killed after a few hours. [1] [4] Carrel's work on organ transplantation later earned a Nobel Prize; Guthrie was probably excluded because of this controversial work on head transplantation. [2]

In 1954, Vladimir Demikhov, a Soviet surgeon who had done important work to improve coronary bypass surgery, performed an experiment in which he grafted a dog's head and upper body including the front legs, onto another dog; the effort was focused on how to provide blood supply to the donor head and upper body and not on grafting the nervous systems. The dogs generally survived a few days; one survived 29 days. The grafted body parts were able to move and react to stimulus. The animals died due to transplant rejection. [1]

In the 1950s and '60s, immunosuppressive drugs and organ transplantation techniques were developed that eventually made transplantation of kidneys, livers, and other organs standard medical procedures. [1]

In 1965, Robert J. White did a series of experiments in which he attempted to graft only the vascular system of isolated dog brains onto existing dogs, to learn how to manage this challenge. He monitored brain activity with EEG and also monitored metabolism, and showed that he could maintain high levels of brain activity and metabolism by avoiding any break in the blood supply. The animals survived between 6 hours and 2 days. In 1970, he did four experiments in which he cut the head off of a monkey and connected the blood vessels of another monkey head to it; he did not attempt to connect the nervous systems. White used deep hypothermia to protect the brains during the times when they were cut off from blood during procedure. The recipient bodies had to be kept alive with mechanical ventilation and drugs to stimulate the heart. The grafted heads were able to function - the eyes tracked moving objects and it could chew and swallow. There were problems with the grafting of blood vessels that led to blood clots forming, and White used high doses of immunosuppressive drugs that had severe side effects; the animals died between 6 hours and 3 days after the heads were engrafted. [1] These experiments were reported and criticized in the media and were considered barbaric by animal rights activists. [2] There were few animal experiments on head transplantation for many years after this. [2]

In 2012, Xiaoping Ren published work in which he grafted the head of a mouse onto another mouse's body; again the focus was on how to avoid harm from the loss of blood supply; with his protocol the grafted heads survived up to six months. [1]

In 2013, Sergio Canavero published a protocol that he said would make human head transplantation possible. [5] [6] In 2016, he announced his plans to do the procedure on Valeriy Spiridonov, a disabled Russian software engineer suffering from spinal muscular atrophy, who volunteered for the surgery. Canavero claimed that there is a 90% chance of success. [7] However, Spiridonov later cancelled his participation after falling in love with a woman. [8]

In 2015, Ren published work in which he cut off the heads of mice but left the brain stem in place, and then connected the vasculature of the donor head to the recipient body; this work was an effort to address whether it was possible to keep the body of the recipient animal alive without life support. All prior experimental work that involved removing the recipient body's head had cut the head off lower down, just below the second bone in the spinal column. Ren also used moderate hypothermia to protect the brains during the procedure. [1]

In 2016, Ren and Canavero published a review of attempted as well as possible neuroprotection strategies that they said should be researched for potential use in a head transplantation procedure; they discussed various protocols for connecting the vasculature, the use of various levels of hypothermia, the use of blood substitutes, and the possibility of using hydrogen sulfide as a neuroprotective agent. [1] [9]

Arthur Caplan, a bioethicist, has written "Head transplants are fake news. Those who promote such claims and who would subject any human being to unproven cruel surgery merit not headlines but only contempt and condemnation." [10]

Robert J. White became a target for protestors because of his head transplantation experiments. One interrupted a banquet in his honor by offering him a bloody replica of a human head. Others called his house asking for "Dr. Butcher". When White testified in a civil hearing about Sam Sheppard's murder case, lawyer Terry Gilbert compared White to Dr. Frankenstein. [11] The People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals described White's experiments as "epitomizing the crude, cruel vivisection industry". [12]

In general, the field of transplantation medicine has been met with resistance and alarm from some quarters as advances have been made; Joseph Murray, who performed the first kidney transplant in 1954, was described as doing something unnatural or as playing God. These continued as other organs were transplanted, but perhaps became sharpest as hand transplants and face transplants emerged in 1998 and 2005 respectively, as each of these are visible, personal, and social in ways that internal organs are not. [2] The medical ethics of each of these procedures was extensively discussed and worked out before clinical experimental and regular usage began. [2]

With regard to head transplantation, there had been little formal ethical discussion published in the literature and little dialogue among stakeholders as of 2017; the plans of Canavero were well ahead of society's and the medical establishment's readiness or acceptance. [2] There was no accepted protocol for conducting the procedure to justify the risk to the people involved, methods of obtaining informed consent were unclear, especially for the person whose body would be used; issues of desperation render the truly informed consent of a head donor questionable. [2] With regard to societal costs, the body of a person willing to be an organ donor can save the lives of many people, and as of 2017, the supply of tissues and organs from people willing to be organ donors did not meet the medical need of recipients; the notion of an entire donor body going to one other person was difficult to justify at that time. [2] Basic legal issues were also unclear as of 2017 with regard to whether only one or both of the people involved in a head transplantation would have any legal rights in the post-procedure person. [2]

The most appropriate initial form of the procedure was also unclear as of 2017. Because grafting the head onto the spinal cord was not possible at that time, the only feasible procedure would be one where the head was only connected to the blood supply of the donor body, leaving the person completely paralyzed, with the accompanying limited quality of life and high societal cost to maintain. [2]

The psychological results of the procedure were unclear as well. While concerns were raised about whether recipients of a face transplant and their social circle would have difficulty adjusting, studies as of 2017 had found that disruptions had been minimal. But no transplant had ever been performed where the entire body of an individual is unfamiliar at the conclusion of the procedure, and one of the few documents discussing the ethics in the biomedical literature, a letter to the editor of a journal published in 2015 foresaw a high risk of insanity as a result of the procedure. [2] [13]

Popular opinion about Canavero's plans for head transplantation has been generally negative as of 2017. [14] Many of these criticisms focus on the state of technology and the timeframe in which Canavero says he will be able to successfully conduct the procedure. [15] [16]

Literature

Film and television

Video games

See also

Related Research Articles

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Surgery is a medical specialty that uses manual and instrumental techniques to diagnose or treat pathological conditions, to alter bodily functions, to reconstruct or improve aesthetics and appearance, or to remove unwanted tissues or foreign bodies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Organ (biology)</span> Collection of tissues with similar functions

In a multicellular organism, an organ is a collection of tissues joined in a structural unit to serve a common function. In the hierarchy of life, an organ lies between tissue and an organ system. Tissues are formed from same type cells to act together in a function. Tissues of different types combine to form an organ which has a specific function. The intestinal wall for example is formed by epithelial tissue and smooth muscle tissue. Two or more organs working together in the execution of a specific body function form an organ system, also called a biological system or body system.

A brain transplant or whole-body transplant is a procedure in which the brain of one organism is transplanted into the body of another organism. It is a procedure distinct from head transplantation, which involves transferring the entire head to a new body, as opposed to the brain only. Theoretically, a person with complete organ failure could be given a new and functional body while keeping their own personality, memories, and consciousness through such a procedure. Neurosurgeon Robert J. White has grafted the head of a monkey onto the headless body of another monkey. EEG readings showed the brain was later functioning normally. Initially, it was thought to prove that the brain was an immunologically privileged organ, as the host's immune system did not attack it at first, but immunorejection caused the monkey to die after nine days. Brain transplants and similar concepts have also been explored in various forms of science fiction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Organ transplantation</span> Medical procedure in which an organ is removed from one body and placed in the body of a recipient

Organ transplantation is a medical procedure in which an organ is removed from one body and placed in the body of a recipient, to replace a damaged or missing organ. The donor and recipient may be at the same location, or organs may be transported from a donor site to another location. Organs and/or tissues that are transplanted within the same person's body are called autografts. Transplants that are recently performed between two subjects of the same species are called allografts. Allografts can either be from a living or cadaveric source.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Liver transplantation</span> Type of organ transplantation

Liver transplantation or hepatic transplantation is the replacement of a diseased liver with the healthy liver from another person (allograft). Liver transplantation is a treatment option for end-stage liver disease and acute liver failure, although availability of donor organs is a major limitation. Liver transplantation is highly regulated, and only performed at designated transplant medical centers by highly trained transplant physicians. Favorable outcomes require careful screening for eligible recipients, as well as a well-calibrated live or deceased donor match.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Skin grafting</span> Surgical transplantation of skin

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Xenotransplantation</span> Transplantation of cells or tissue across species

Xenotransplantation, or heterologous transplant, is the transplantation of living cells, tissues or organs from one species to another. Such cells, tissues or organs are called xenografts or xenotransplants. It is contrasted with allotransplantation, syngeneic transplantation or isotransplantation and autotransplantation. Xenotransplantation is an artificial method of creating an animal-human chimera, that is, a human with a subset of animal cells. In contrast, an individual where each cell contains genetic material from a human and an animal is called a human–animal hybrid.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Face transplant</span> Medical procedure to replace a persons face using donor tissue

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kidney transplantation</span> Medical procedure

Kidney transplant or renal transplant is the organ transplant of a kidney into a patient with end-stage kidney disease (ESRD). Kidney transplant is typically classified as deceased-donor or living-donor transplantation depending on the source of the donor organ. Living-donor kidney transplants are further characterized as genetically related (living-related) or non-related (living-unrelated) transplants, depending on whether a biological relationship exists between the donor and recipient. The first successful kidney transplant was performed in 1954 by a team including Joseph Murray, the recipient's surgeon, and Hartwell Harrison, surgeon for the donor. Murray was awarded a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1990 for this and other work. In 2018, an estimated 95,479 kidney transplants were performed worldwide, 36% of which came from living donors.

Robert Joseph White was an American neurosurgeon and bioethicist best known for his work on hypothermia and his experiments with head transplants on mammals, including living monkeys.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hair transplantation</span> Surgical operation to relocate hair follicles

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Penis transplantation is a surgical transplant procedure in which a penis is transplanted to a patient. The penis may be an allograft from a human donor, or it may be grown artificially, though the latter has not yet been transplanted onto a human.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intestine transplantation</span> Surgical replacement of the small intestine

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Sergio Canavero is an Italian neurosurgeon known for his controversial claims about the near-term feasibility of head transplantation—the grafting of a head onto a new body—in humans. He made headlines in 2015 when he publicly announced that he would perform such a procedure on a human in two years' time. In 2017, Canavero and colleagues performed a rehearsal head transplantation procedure on two cadavers, and he announced his intention to "imminently" perform the operation on a live human patient paralyzed from the neck down.

Tissue transplantation is a surgical procedure involving the removal of tissue from a donor site or the creation of new tissue, followed by tissue transfer to the recipient site. The aim of tissue transplantation is to repair or replace tissues that are missing, damaged, or diseased, thereby improving patients' survival, functionality and quality of life.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Lamba, N; Holsgrove, D; Broekman, ML (December 2016). "The history of head transplantation: a review". Acta Neurochirurgica. 158 (12): 2239–2247. doi:10.1007/s00701-016-2984-0. PMC   5116034 . PMID   27738901.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Furr, A; Hardy, MA; Barret, JP; Barker, JH (May 2017). "Surgical, ethical, and psychosocial considerations in human head transplantation". International Journal of Surgery. 41: 190–195. doi:10.1016/j.ijsu.2017.01.077. PMC   5490488 . PMID   28110028.
  3. ↑ Muduma, G; Saunders, R; Odeyemi, I; Pollock, RF (2016). "Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Tacrolimus versus Ciclosporin as Primary Immunosuppression After Liver Transplant". PLOS ONE. 11 (11): e0160421. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1160421M. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0160421 . PMC   5094765 . PMID   27812112.
  4. ↑ Roach, Mary (2004). Stiff: The Curious Lives of Human Cadavers. W. W. Norton & Co. pp. 206–210. ISBN   978-0393324822.
  5. ↑ "Sergio Canavero: Will His Head Transplants Roll? - Neuroskeptic". Neuroskeptic. May 13, 2017. Archived from the original on November 20, 2019. Retrieved August 5, 2017.
  6. ↑ Canavero, S (2013). "HEAVEN: The head anastomosis venture Project outline for the first human head transplantation with spinal linkage (GEMINI)". Surgical Neurology International. 4 (Suppl 1): S335–42. doi: 10.4103/2152-7806.113444 . PMC   3821155 . PMID   24244881.
  7. ↑ "The surgeon who wants to perform a head transplant by 2017". BBC News. September 20, 2016. Retrieved July 28, 2023.
  8. ↑ Stewart, Will (December 18, 2018). "Man set for world's first head transplant cancels surgery after falling in love". mirror. Retrieved July 28, 2023.
  9. ↑ Ren, X; Orlova, EV; Maevsky, EI; Bonicalzi, V; Canavero, S (July 2016). "Brain protection during cephalosomatic anastomosis". Surgery. 160 (1): 5–10. doi:10.1016/j.surg.2016.01.026. PMID   27143608.
  10. ↑ Albert Caplan (December 13, 2017). "Promise of world's first head transplant is truly fake news". Chicago Trubune.
  11. ↑ Grant Segall, Dr. Robert J. White, famous neurosurgeron (sic) and ethicist, dies at 84, The Plain Dealer , (September 16, 2010).
  12. ↑ Carla Bennett, Cruel and Unneeded, The New York Times , People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, (August 21, 1995).
  13. ↑ Cartolovni, Anto; Spagnolo, AntonioG (2015). "Ethical considerations regarding head transplantation". Surgical Neurology International. 6 (1): 103. doi: 10.4103/2152-7806.158785 . PMC   4476134 . PMID   26110084.
  14. ↑ Helen Thomson. "First human head transplant could happen in two years" . New Scientist.
  15. ↑ Fecht, Sarah (February 27, 2015). "BNo, human head transplants will not be possible by 2017". Popular Science. Retrieved March 6, 2015.
  16. ↑ "Man volunteers for world first head transplant operation". Archived from the original on April 10, 2015. Retrieved April 10, 2015.
  17. ↑ "NOGGIN".
  18. ↑ Regalado, Antonio (May 23, 2024). "That viral video showing a head transplant is a fake. But it might be real someday". MIT Technology Review.


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