Corneal transplantation

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Corneal transplantation
Cornea transplant.jpg
Cornea transplant approximately one week after surgery. Multiple light reflections indicate folds in the cornea, which were later resolved.
Other namesCorneal grafting
ICD-9-CM 11.6
MeSH D016039
MedlinePlus 003008

Corneal transplantation, also known as corneal grafting, is a surgical procedure where a damaged or diseased cornea is replaced by donated corneal tissue (the graft). When the entire cornea is replaced it is known as penetrating keratoplasty and when only part of the cornea is replaced it is known as lamellar keratoplasty. Keratoplasty simply means surgery to the cornea. The graft is taken from a recently deceased individual with no known diseases or other factors that may affect the chance of survival of the donated tissue or the health of the recipient.

Contents

The cornea is the transparent front part of the eye that covers the iris, pupil and anterior chamber. The surgical procedure is performed by ophthalmologists, physicians who specialize in eyes, and is often done on an outpatient basis. Donors can be of any age, as is shown in the case of Janis Babson, who donated her eyes after dying at the age of 10. [1] [2] Corneal transplantation is performed when medicines, keratoconus conservative surgery and cross-linking can no longer heal the cornea.

This surgical procedure usually treats corneal blindness, [3] [4] with success rates of at least 41% as of 2021. [5] [6] [7]

Medical uses

Indications include the following:

Risks

The risks are similar to other intraocular procedures, but additionally include graft rejection (lifelong), detachment or displacement of lamellar transplants and primary graft failure. Use of immunosuppressants including cyclosporine A, tacrolimus, mycophenolate mofetil, sirolimus, and leflunomide to prevent graft rejection is increasing but there is insufficient evidence to ascertain which immunosuppressant is better. [8] In a Cochrane review which included low to moderate quality evidence, adverse effects were found to be common with systemic mycophenolate mofetil, but less common with topical cyclosporine A or tacrolimus.

There is also a risk of infection. Since the cornea has no blood vessels (it takes its nutrients from the aqueous humor) it heals much more slowly than a cut on the skin. While the wound is healing, it is possible that it might become infected by various microorganisms. This risk is minimized by antibiotic prophylaxis (using antibiotic eyedrops, even when no infection exists).

There is a risk of cornea rejection, which occurs in about 10% of cases. [9] Graft failure can occur at any time after the cornea has been transplanted, even years or decades later. The causes can vary, though it is usually due to new injury or illness. Treatment can be either medical or surgical, depending on the individual case. An early, technical cause of failure may be an excessively tight stitch cheesewiring through the sclera.

Infectious disease transmission through corneal transplantation is exceedingly rare. [10] All corneal grafts are screened for the presence of viruses such as HIV or hepatitis through antibody or nucleic acid testing, and there has never been a reported case of HIV transmission through corneal transplant surgery. [11] Prior to the development of reliable HIV testing, many countries instituted bans on corneal donation by gay men. For example, on 20 May 1994, the United States banned corneal donation by any man who has had sex with another man in the preceding 5 years, even if all HIV testing is negative (a policy which continues to be enforced today). [12]

Procedure

Cornea transplant one day after surgery. A human eye 1 day after a cornea transplant.jpg
Cornea transplant one day after surgery.
Cornea transplant after one year of healing, two stitches are visible Cornea Transplant.jpg
Cornea transplant after one year of healing, two stitches are visible

On the day of the surgery, the patient arrives to either a hospital or an outpatient surgery center, where the procedure will be performed. The patient is given a brief physical examination by the surgical team and is taken to the operating room. In the operating room, the patient lies down on an operating table and is either given general anesthesia, or local anesthesia and a sedative.

With anesthesia induced, the surgical team prepares the eye to be operated on and drapes the face around the eye. An eyelid speculum is placed to keep the lids open, and some lubrication is placed on the eye to prevent drying. In children, a metal ring is stitched to the sclera which will provide support of the sclera during the procedure.

Pre-operative examination

In most instances, the person will meet with their ophthalmologist for an examination in the weeks or months preceding the surgery. During the exam, the ophthalmologist will examine the eye and diagnose the condition. The doctor will then discuss the condition with the patient, including the different treatment options available. The doctor will also discuss the risks and benefits of the various options. If the patient elects to proceed with the surgery, the doctor will have the patient sign an informed consent form. The doctor might also perform a physical examination and order lab tests, such as blood work, X-rays, or an EKG.

The surgery date and time will also be set, and the patient will be told where the surgery will take place. Within the United States, the supply of corneas is sufficient to meet the demand for surgery and research purposes. Therefore, unlike other tissues for transplantation, delays and shortages are not usually an issue. [13]

Penetrating keratoplasty

Replacement of the entire cornea Penetrating keratoplasty.JPG
Replacement of the entire cornea

A trephine (a circular cutting device), which removes a circular disc of cornea, is used by the surgeon to cut the donor cornea. A second trephine is then used to remove a similar-sized portion of the patient's cornea. The donor tissue is then sewn in place with sutures.

Antibiotic eyedrops are placed, the eye is patched, and the patient is taken to a recovery area while the effects of the anesthesia wear off. The patient typically goes home following this and sees the doctor the following day for the first postoperative appointment.

Lamellar keratoplasty

Lamellar keratoplasty encompasses several techniques which selectively replace diseased layers of the cornea while leaving healthy layers in place. The chief advantage is improved tectonic integrity of the eye. Disadvantages include the technically challenging nature of these procedures, which replace portions of a structure only 500  μm thick, and reduced optical performance of the donor/recipient interface compared to full-thickness keratoplasty.

Deep anterior lamellar keratoplasty

In this procedure, the anterior layers of the central cornea are removed and replaced with donor tissue. Endothelial cells and the Descemets membrane are left in place. This technique is used in cases of anterior corneal opacifications, scars, and ectatic diseases such as keratoconus.

Endothelial keratoplasty

Endothelial keratoplasty replaces the patient's endothelium with a transplanted disc of posterior stroma/Descemets/endothelium (DSEK) or Descemets/endothelium (DMEK). [14]

This relatively new procedure has revolutionized treatment of disorders of the innermost layer of the cornea (endothelium). Unlike a full-thickness corneal transplant, the surgery can be performed with one or no sutures. Patients may recover functional vision in days to weeks, as opposed to up to a year with full thickness transplants. However, an Australian study has shown that despite its benefits, the loss of endothelial cells that maintain transparency is much higher in DSEK compared to a full-thickness corneal transplant. The reason may be greater tissue manipulation during surgery, the study concluded. [15]

During surgery the patient's corneal endothelium is removed and replaced with donor tissue. With DSEK, the donor includes a thin layer of stroma, as well as endothelium, and is commonly 100–150 μm thick. With DMEK, only the endothelium is transplanted. In the immediate postoperative period the donor tissue is held in position with an air bubble placed inside the eye (the anterior chamber). The tissue self-adheres in a short period and the air is adsorbed into the surrounding tissues.

Complications include displacement of the donor tissue requiring repositioning ("refloating"). This is more common with DMEK than DSEK. Folds in the donor tissue may reduce the quality of vision, requiring repair. Rejection of the donor tissue may require repeating the procedure. Gradual reduction in endothelial cell density over time can lead to loss of clarity and require repeating the procedure.

Patients with endothelial transplants frequently achieve best corrected vision in the 20/30 to 20/40 range, although some reach 20/20. Optical irregularity at the graft/host interface may limit vision below 20/20.

Synthetic corneas

Boston keratoprosthesis

Boston Kpro type 1 titanium posterior plate Boston Kpro type 1 Titanium posterior plate.JPG
Boston Kpro type 1 titanium posterior plate

The Boston keratoprosthesis is the most widely used synthetic cornea to date with over 900 procedures performed worldwide in 2008. The Boston KPro was developed at the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary under the leadership of Claes Dohlman. [16] [ further explanation needed ]

AlphaCor

In cases where there have been several graft failures or the risk for keratoplasty is high, synthetic corneas can substitute successfully for donor corneas. Such a device contains a peripheral skirt and a transparent central region. These two parts are connected on a molecular level by an interpenetrating polymer network, made from poly-2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (pHEMA). AlphaCor is a U.S. FDA-approved type of synthetic cornea measuring 7.0 mm in diameter and 0.5 mm in thickness. The main advantages of synthetic corneas are that they are biocompatible, and the network between the parts and the device prevents complications that could arise at their interface. The probability of retention in one large study was estimated at 62% at 2 years follow-up. [17]

Osteo-Odonto-Keratoprosthesis

In a very rare and complex multi-step surgical procedure, employed to help the most disabled patients, a lamina of the person's tooth is grafted into the eye, with an artificial lens installed in the transplanted piece.[ clarification needed ]

Prognosis

The prognosis for visual restoration and maintenance of ocular health with corneal transplants is generally very good. Risks for failure or guarded prognoses are multifactorial. The type of transplant, the disease state requiring the procedure, the health of the other parts of the recipient eye and even the health of the donor tissue may all confer a more or less favorable prognosis.

The majority of corneal transplants result in significant improvement in visual function for many years or a lifetime. In cases of rejection or transplant failure, the surgery can generally be repeated.

Alternatives

Contact lenses

Different types of contact lenses may be used to delay or eliminate the need for corneal transplantation in corneal disorders.

Phototherapeutic keratectomy

Diseases that only affect the surface of the cornea can be treated with an operation called phototherapeutic keratectomy (PTK). With the precision of an excimer laser and a modulating agent coating the eye, irregularities on the surface can be removed. However, in most of the cases where corneal transplantation is recommended, PTK would not be effective.

Intrastromal corneal ring segments

In corneal disorders where vision correction is not possible by using contact lenses, intrastromal corneal ring segments may be used to flatten the cornea, which is intended to relieve the nearsightedness and astigmatism. In this procedure, an ophthalmologist makes an incision in the cornea of the eye, and inserts two crescent or semi-circular shaped ring segments between the layers of the corneal stroma, one on each side of the pupil. [18] Intrastromal corneal rings were approved in 2004 by the Food and Drug Administration for people with keratoconus who cannot adequately correct their vision with glasses or contact lenses. They were approved under the Humanitarian Device Exemption, [19] [20] which means the manufacturer did not have to demonstrate effectiveness.

Corneal collagen cross-linking

Corneal collagen cross-linking may delay or eliminate the need for corneal transplantation in keratoconus and post-LASIK ectasia. [21]

Epidemiology

Corneal transplant is one of the most common transplant procedures. [22] Although approximately 100,000 procedures are performed worldwide each year, some estimates report that 10,000,000 people are affected by various disorders that would benefit from corneal transplantation. [23]

In Australia, approximately 2,000 grafts are performed each year. [22] According to the NHS Blood and Transplant, over 2,300 corneal transplant procedures are performed each year in the United Kingdom. [24] In the one-year period ending 31 March 2006, 2,503 people received corneal transplants in the UK. [25]

History

Eduard Zirm Eduard Konrad Zirm.JPG
Eduard Zirm
Spanish-born eye surgeon Ramon Castroviejo successfully performed keratoplasty as early as 1936. Ramon Castroviejo.jpg
Spanish-born eye surgeon Ramón Castroviejo successfully performed keratoplasty as early as 1936.

The first cornea transplant was performed in 1905 by Eduard Zirm (Olomouc Eye Clinic, now Czech Republic), making it one of the first types of transplant surgery successfully performed. Another pioneer of the operation was Ramón Castroviejo. Russian eye surgeon Vladimir Filatov's attempts at transplanting cornea started with the first try in 1912 and were continued, gradually improving until on 6 May 1931 he successfully grafted a patient using corneal tissue from a deceased person. [26] He widely reported another transplant in 1936, disclosing his technique in full detail. [27] In 1936, Castroviejo did a first transplantation in an advanced case of keratoconus, achieving significant improvement in patient's vision. [28] [29]

Tudor Thomas, a clinical teacher for the Welsh National School of Medicine, conceived the idea of a donor system for corneal grafts and an eye bank was established in East Grinstead in 1955. [30]

Advances in operating microscopes enabled surgeons to have a more magnified view of the surgical field, while advances in materials science enabled them to use sutures finer than a human hair.

Instrumental in the success of cornea transplants were the establishment of eye banks. These are organizations located throughout the world to coordinate the distribution of donated corneas to surgeons, as well as providing eyes for research. Some eye banks also distribute other anatomical gifts.

Research

High speed lasers

Blades are being replaced by high speed lasers in order to make surgical incisions more precise. These improved incisions allow the cornea to heal more quickly and the sutures to be removed sooner. The cornea heals more strongly than with standard blade operations. Not only does this dramatically improve visual recovery and healing, it also allows the possibility for improvement in visual outcomes.

Since 2004, Amnitrans Eyebank in Rotterdam, The Netherlands, provides donor corneas pre-cut for advanced keratoplasty procedures, such as DSEK, DSAEK, FS-DSEK and DMEK. In 2007, Seattle-based SightLife, one of the leading corneal tissue banks in the world, introduced a process for the preparation of donated corneal tissue using a femtosecond laser. This process is known as custom corneal tissue.

DSEK/DSAEK/DMEK

Endothelial keratoplasty (EK) was introduced by Melles et al. in 1998. Today there are two forms of EK: [31]

Not all patients with diseased corneas are candidates for endothelial keratoplasty. These procedures correct corneal endothelial failure, but are not able to correct corneal scarring, thinning, or surface irregularity. There is currently limited data on long-term survival of DMEK grafts however the early indications are very positive. An upcoming systematic review will seek to compare the safety and effectiveness of DMEK versus DSAEK in people with corneal failure from Fuchs' endothelial dystrophy and pseudophakic bullous keratopathy. [37]

Stem cells

There is a bioengineering technique that uses stem cells to create corneas or part of corneas that can be transplanted into the eyes. Corneal stem cells are removed from a healthy cornea. They are collected and, through laboratory procedures, made into five to ten layers of cells that can be stitched into a patient's eye. The stem cells are placed into the area where the damaged cornea tissue has been removed. This is a good alternative for those that cannot gain vision through regular cornea transplants. A new development, announced by the University of Cincinnati Medical School in May 2007, would use bone marrow stem cells to regrow the cornea and its cells. This technique, which proved successful in mouse trials, would be of use to those with inherited genetic degenerative conditions of the cornea, especially if other means like a transplant are not feasible. It works better than a transplant because these stem cells keep their ability to differentiate and replicate, and so keep the disease from recurring, longer and better.

Biosynthetic corneas

On 25 August 2010 investigators from Canada and Sweden reported results from the first 10 people in the world treated with the biosynthetic corneas. Two years after having the corneas implanted, six of the 10 patients had improved vision. Nine of the 10 experienced cell and nerve regeneration, meaning that corneal cells and nerves grew into the implant. To make the material, the researchers placed a human gene that regulates the natural production of collagen into specially programmed yeast cells. They then molded the resulting material into the shape of a cornea. This research shows the potential for these bioengineered corneas but the outcomes in this study were not nearly as good as those achieved with human donor corneas. This may become an excellent technique, but right now it is still in the prototype stage and not ready for clinical use. The results were published in the journal Science Translational Medicine . [38]

Society and culture

Cost

A 2013 cost-benefit analysis by the Lewin Group for Eye Bank Association of America, estimated an average cost of $16,500 for each corneal transplant. [39]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Keratoconus</span> Medical condition involving the eye

Keratoconus (KC) is a disorder of the eye that results in progressive thinning of the cornea. This may result in blurry vision, double vision, nearsightedness, irregular astigmatism, and light sensitivity leading to poor quality-of-life. Usually both eyes are affected. In more severe cases a scarring or a circle may be seen within the cornea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cornea</span> Transparent front layer of the eye

The cornea is the transparent front part of the eye that covers the iris, pupil, and anterior chamber. Along with the anterior chamber and lens, the cornea refracts light, accounting for approximately two-thirds of the eye's total optical power. In humans, the refractive power of the cornea is approximately 43 dioptres. The cornea can be reshaped by surgical procedures such as LASIK.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Refractive surgery</span> Surgery to treat common vision disorders

Refractive surgery is optional eye surgery used to improve the refractive state of the eye and decrease or eliminate dependency on glasses or contact lenses. This can include various methods of surgical remodeling of the cornea (keratomileusis), lens implantation or lens replacement. The most common methods today use excimer lasers to reshape the curvature of the cornea. Refractive eye surgeries are used to treat common vision disorders such as myopia, hyperopia, presbyopia and astigmatism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Corneal endothelium</span> Single layer of endothelial cells on the surface of the cornea

The corneal endothelium is a single layer of endothelial cells on the inner surface of the cornea. It faces the chamber formed between the cornea and the iris.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fuchs' dystrophy</span> Medical condition

Fuchs dystrophy, also referred to as Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy (FECD) and Fuchs endothelial dystrophy (FED), is a slowly progressing corneal dystrophy that usually affects both eyes and is slightly more common in women than in men. Although early signs of Fuchs dystrophy are sometimes seen in people in their 30s and 40s, the disease rarely affects vision until people reach their 50s and 60s.

Eye banks recover, prepare and deliver donated eyes for cornea transplants and research. The first successful cornea transplant was performed in 1905 and the first eye bank was founded in 1944. Currently, in the United States, eye banks provide tissue for over 80,000 cornea transplants each year to treat conditions such as keratoconus and corneal scarring. In some cases, the white of the eye (sclera) is used to surgically repair recipient eyes. Unlike other organs and tissues, corneas are in adequate supply for transplants in the United States, and excess tissue is exported internationally, where there are shortages in many countries, due to greater demand and a less-developed eye banking infrastructure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Descemet's membrane</span> Membrane in the cornea of the eye

Descemet's membrane is the basement membrane that lies between the corneal proper substance, also called stroma, and the endothelial layer of the cornea. It is composed of different kinds of collagen than the stroma. The endothelial layer is located at the posterior of the cornea. Descemet's membrane, as the basement membrane for the endothelial layer, is secreted by the single layer of squamous epithelial cells that compose the endothelial layer of the cornea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Corneal dystrophy</span> Medical condition

Corneal dystrophy is a group of rare hereditary disorders characterised by bilateral abnormal deposition of substances in the transparent front part of the eye called the cornea.

Keratoglobus is a degenerative non-inflammatory disorder of the eye in which structural changes within the cornea cause it to become extremely thin and change to a more globular shape than its normal gradual curve. It causes corneal thinning, primarily at the margins, resulting in a spherical, slightly enlarged eye.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Corneal neovascularization</span> Medical condition

Corneal neovascularization (CNV) is the in-growth of new blood vessels from the pericorneal plexus into avascular corneal tissue as a result of oxygen deprivation. Maintaining avascularity of the corneal stroma is an important aspect of healthy corneal physiology as it is required for corneal transparency and optimal vision. A decrease in corneal transparency causes visual acuity deterioration. Corneal tissue is avascular in nature and the presence of vascularization, which can be deep or superficial, is always pathologically related.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pellucid marginal degeneration</span> Degenerative corneal condition

Pellucid marginal degeneration (PMD) is a degenerative corneal condition, often confused with keratoconus. It typically presents with painless vision loss affecting both eyes. Rarely, it may cause acute vision loss with severe pain due to perforation of the cornea. It is typically characterized by a clear, bilateral thinning (ectasia) in the inferior and peripheral region of the cornea, although some cases affect only one eye. The cause of the disease remains unclear.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bullous keratopathy</span> Medical condition

Bullous keratopathy, also known as pseudophakic bullous keratopathy (PBK), is a pathological condition in which small vesicles, or bullae, are formed in the cornea due to endothelial dysfunction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Keratoprosthesis</span> Surgical procedure where a diseased cornea is replaced with an artificial one

Keratoprosthesis is a surgical procedure where a diseased cornea is replaced with an artificial cornea. Traditionally, keratoprosthesis is recommended after a person has had a failure of one or more donor corneal transplants. More recently, a less invasive, non-penetrating artificial cornea has been developed which can be used in more routine cases of corneal blindness. While conventional cornea transplant uses donor tissue for transplant, an artificial cornea is used in the keratoprosthesis procedure. The surgery is performed to restore vision in patients with severely damaged cornea due to congenital birth defects, infections, injuries and burns.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Limbal stem cell</span>

Limbal stem cells, also known as corneal epithelial stem cells, are unipotent stem cells located in the basal epithelial layer of the corneal limbus. They form the border between the cornea and the sclera. Characteristics of limbal stem cells include a slow turnover rate, high proliferative potential, clonogenicity, expression of stem cell markers, as well as the ability to regenerate the entire corneal epithelium. Limbal stem cell proliferation has the role of maintaining the cornea; for example, by replacing cells that are lost via tears. Additionally, these cells also prevent the conjunctival epithelial cells from migrating onto the surface of the cornea.

Pre Descemet's endothelial keratoplasty (PDEK) is a kind of endothelial keratoplasty, where the pre descemet's layer (PDL) along with descemet's membrane (DM) and endothelium is transplanted. Conventionally in a corneal transplantation, doctors use a whole cornea or parts of the five layers of the cornea to perform correction surgeries. In May 2013, Dr Harminder Dua discovered a sixth layer between the stroma and the descemet membrane which was named after him as the Dua's layer. In the PDEK technique, doctors take the innermost two layers of the cornea, along with the Dua's layer and graft it in the patient's eye.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glued intraocular lens</span> Surgical treatment for eyes lacking functional lens capsules

In ophthalmology, glued intraocular lens or glued IOL is a surgical technique for implantation, with the use of biological glue, of a posterior chamber IOL in eyes with deficient or absent posterior capsules. A quick-acting surgical fibrin sealant derived from human blood plasma, with both hemostatic and adhesive properties, is used.

ProfessorKeryn Anne Williams is an Australian medical scientist who works in the field of ophthalmology. She was a Principal Research Fellow in the School of Medicine at Flinders University. Her research interests include clinical and experimental corneal transplantation, ocular inflammation, ocular immunology and eye banking.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Corneal button</span> Replacement cormea for transplantation

A corneal button is a replacement cornea to be transplanted in the place of a damaged, diseased or opacified cornea, normally approximately 8.5–9.0mm in diameter. It is used in a corneal transplantation procedure whereby the whole, or part, of a cornea is replaced. The donor tissue can now be held for days to even weeks of the donor's death and is normally a small, rounded shape. The main use of the corneal button is during procedures where the entirety of the cornea needs to be replaced, also known as penetrating keratoplasty.

Descemet membrane endothelial keratoplasty (DMEK) is a method of corneal transplantation. The DMEK technique involves the removal of a very thin sheet of tissue from the posterior (innermost) side of a person's cornea, replacing it with the two posterior (innermost) layers of corneal tissue from a donor's eyeball. The two corneal layers which are exchanged are the Descemet's membrane and the corneal endothelium. The person's corneal tissue is gently excised, peeled off, and replaced with the donor tissue via small 'clear corneal incisions' (small corneal incisions just anterior to the corneal limbus. The donor tissue is tamponaded against the person's exposed posterior corneal stroma by injecting a small air bubble into the anterior chamber. To ensure the air tamponade is effective, it is necessary for people to strictly maintain such a posture that they are looking up at the ceiling during the recovery period until the air bubble has fully resorbed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Corneal opacity</span> Medical condition

Corneal opacification is a term used when the human cornea loses its transparency. The term corneal opacity is used particularly for the loss of transparency of cornea due to scarring. Transparency of the cornea is dependent on the uniform diameter and the regular spacing and arrangement of the collagen fibrils within the stroma. Alterations in the spacing of collagen fibrils in a variety of conditions including corneal edema, scars, and macular corneal dystrophy is clinically manifested as corneal opacity. The term corneal blindness is commonly used to describe blindness due to corneal opacity.

References

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  20. ↑ Food and Drug Administration (26 July 2004). "INTACS Prescription Inserts for Keratoconus - H040002". Food and Drug Administration .
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  22. 1 2 "Corneal transplantation and donation". Better Health Channel. Victoria, Australia: Department of Health and Human Services . Retrieved 27 January 2019.
  23. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 August 2006. Retrieved 19 June 2006.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  24. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 October 2005. Retrieved 19 June 2006.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  25. ↑ "Statistics". Archived from the original on 22 December 2008. Retrieved 19 June 2006.
  26. ↑ Vladimir Filatov, peoples.ru
  27. ↑ "Eye repair". Time , 13 April 1936.
  28. ↑ Castroviejo R (1948). "Keratoplasty for the Treatment of Keratoconus". Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 46: 127–53. PMC   1312756 . PMID   16693468.
  29. ↑ Castroviejo, R.: International Abstract of Surgery, 65:5, December 1937.
  30. ↑ Pioneers & Personalities Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Cardiff University
  31. ↑ Price, Marianne O.; Feng, Matthew T.; Price, Francis W. (May 2021). "Endothelial Keratoplasty Update 2020". Cornea. 40 (5): 541–547. doi: 10.1097/ICO.0000000000002565 . PMID   33252380.
  32. ↑ "Ocular Systems Company Website". Archived from the original on 29 September 2013. Retrieved 19 March 2010.
  33. ↑ Evans, Matt. Triad Business Journal, 6 February 2009.
  34. ↑ "Shrewsbury and Telford Hospital NHS Trust Website". Archived from the original on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 8 June 2011.
  35. ↑ "Calderdale and Huddersfield NHS Trust website"
  36. ↑ Worthing Herald News, 21 Nov 2014
  37. ↑ Stuart AJ, Virgili G, Shortt AJ (2016). "Descemet's membrane endothelial keratoplasty versus Descemet's stripping automated endothelial keratoplasty for corneal endothelial failure". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3): CD012097. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD012097 .
  38. ↑ Salynn Boyles. WebMD, 25 August 2010.
  39. ↑ "Cost-Benefit Analysis of Corneal Transplant" (PDF). Restoresight.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2017. Retrieved 30 November 2016.
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