In Shakespearean scholarship, the Henriad refers to a group of William Shakespeare's history plays depicting the rise of the English kings. It is sometimes used to refer to a group of four plays (a tetralogy), but some sources and scholars use the term to refer to eight plays. In the 19th century, Algernon Charles Swinburne used the term to refer to three plays, but that use is not current.
In one sense, the Henriad refers to: Richard II; Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; and Henry V–with the implication that these four plays are Shakespeare's epic, and that Prince Hal, who later becomes Henry V, is the epic hero. (This group may also be referred to as the "second tetralogy" or "second Henriad".)[1][2]
In a more inclusive meaning, the Henriad refers to eight plays: the tetralogy mentioned above (Richard II; Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; and Henry V), plus four plays that were written earlier, and are based on the civil wars now known as The Wars of the Roses–Henry VI, Part 1; Henry VI, Part 2; Henry VI, Part 3; and Richard III.[3]
The second tetralogy
The term Henriad was popularized by Alvin Kernan in his 1969 article, "The Henriad: Shakespeare’s Major History Plays" to suggest that the four plays of the second tetralogy (Richard II; Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; and Henry V), when considered together as a group, or a dramatic tetralogy, have coherence and characteristics that are the primary qualities associated with literary epic: "large-scale heroic action involving many men and many activities tracing the movement of a nation or people through violent change from one condition to another." In this context Kernan sees the four plays as analogous to Homer'sIliad, Virgil'sAeneid, Voltaire'sHenriade, and Milton'sParadise Lost. The action of the Henriad follows the dynastic, cultural and psychological journey that England traveled as it left the medieval world with Richard II and moved on to Henry V and the Renaissance. Politically and socially the Henriad represents a "movement from feudalism and hierarchy to the national state and individualism". Kernan similarly discusses the Henriad in psychological, spatial, temporal, and mythical terms. "In mythical terms," he says, "the passage is from a garden world to a fallen world." This group of plays has recurring characters and settings. However, there is no evidence that these plays were written with the intention that they be considered as a group.[4][5][6][7]
The character Falstaff is introduced in Henry IV, pt. 1, he returns in Henry IV, pt. 2, and he dies early in Henry V. Falstaff represents the tavern world, a world which Prince Hal will leave behind.[8] (This group of three plays is occasionally dubbed the "Falstaffiad" by Harold Bloom and others.)[9][10]
Eight-play Henriad
The term Henriad, following after Kernan, acquired an expanded second meaning, which refers to two groups of Shakespearean plays: The tetralogy mentioned above (Richard II; Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; and Henry V), and also four plays that were written earlier and are based on the historic events and civil wars now known as The Wars of the Roses; Henry VI, Part 1, Henry VI, Part 2, Henry VI, Part 3, and Richard III. In this sense, the eight Henry plays are known as the Henriad, and when divided in two, the group written earlier may be known as the "first Henriad" with the group that was written later known as the "second Henriad".[11][12]
The two Shakespearean tetralogies share the name Henriad, but only the "second Henriad" has the epic qualities that Kernan had in mind in his use of the term. In this way the two definitions are somewhat contradictory and overlapping. Which meaning is intended can usually be derived by the context.[13]
The eight plays, when considered together, are said to tell a unified story of a significant arc of British history from Richard II to Richard III. These plays cover this history, while going beyond the English chronicle play; they include some of Shakespeare's greatest writing. They are not tragedies, but as history plays they are comparable in terms of dramatic or literary quality and meaning. When considered as a group they contain a narrative pattern: disaster, followed by chaos and a battle of contending forces, followed by the happy ending—the restitution of order. This pattern is repeated in every play, as Britain leaves the medieval world and moves towards the British Renaissance. These plays further express the "Elizabethan world order", or mankind's striving in a world of unity battling chaos, based on the Elizabethan era's philosophies, sense of history, and religion.[14][15][16]
The eight-play Henriad is also known as The First Tetralogy and The Second Tetralogy; a terminology that had been in use,[17] but was made popular by the influential Shakespearean scholar E.M.W. Tillyard in his 1944 book, Shakespeare’s History Plays. The word "tetralogy" is derived from the performance tradition of the Dionysian Festival of ancient Athens, in which a poet was to compose a tetralogy (τετραλογία): three tragedies and one comedic satyr play.[18] Tillyard studied these Shakespearean history plays as combined in a dramatic serial form, and analyzed how, when combined, the stories, characters, historic chronology, and themes are linked and portrayed. After Tillyard's book, these plays have often been combined in performance, and it would be a very rare occurrence for Henry VI, part 2 or 3, for example, to be performed individually. Tillyard considered each tetralogy linked, and that the characters themselves link the stories together when they tell their own history or explain their titles.[19]
The theories that consider the eight plays as a group dominated scholarship in the mid 20th century, when the idea was introduced, and have since engendered a great deal of discussion.[20][21][22]
King John is not included in the Henriad because it is said to have a style that is of a different order than the other history plays. King John has great qualities of poetry, freedom and imagination, and is appreciated as a new direction taken by the author. Henry VIII is not included due to unresolved questions regarding how much of it is coauthored, and what of it is written by Shakespeare.[23]
Three-play Henriad
In Algernon Charles Swinburne's book A Study of Shakespeare (1880), he refers to three plays, Henry IV pt. 1, Henry IV pt. 2, and Henry V, as "our English Henriade", and says the "ripest fruit of historic or national drama, the consummation and the crown of Shakespeare’s labours in that line, must of course be recognised and saluted by all students in the supreme and sovereign trilogy of King Henry IV and King Henry V." They are, according to Swinburne, England's "great national trilogy", and Shakespeare's "perfect triumph in the field of patriotic drama."[24]
H. A. Kennedy writing in 1896 refers to Henry IV pt. 1, Henry IV pt. 2, and Henry V, saying "taken together the three plays form a Henriade, a trilogy, whose central figure is the hero of Agincourt, whose subject is his development from the madcap prince to the conqueror of France".[25]
Authorship
Shakespeare is well established as the sole author of the plays of the second Henriad, but there has been speculation regarding possible co-authors of the Henry VI plays of the first Henriad. Since then, the 16th century playwright Christopher Marlowe has been suggested as a possible contributor. Then in 2016 the editors of the New Oxford Shakespeare, led by Gary Taylor, announced that Marlowe and "anonymous" would be listed on their title pages of Henry VI, Parts 2 and 3 as co-author side-by-side with Shakespeare, and that Marlowe, Thomas Nashe and “anonymous" would be listed as the authors of Henry VI, Part 1, with Shakespeare listed only as the adaptor. This is not universally accepted, but it is the first time a major critical edition of Shakespeare's works has listed Marlowe as a co-author.[26][27][28]
Literary background
The plays that may have influenced, inspired, or provided a tradition for Shakespeare's Henriad plays would include popular morality plays, which contributed to the evolution of British drama. Notable morality plays that focus on British history include John Skelton'sMagnificence (1533), David Lyndsay'sA Satire of the Three Estates (1552), and John Bale's play King John (c. 1538). Gorboduc (1561) is considered the first Senecan tragedy in the English language, though it is a chronicle play written in blank verse; it has numerous serious speeches, a unified dramatic action, and its violence is kept off-stage.[29][30]
Out of this tradition the English chronicle play developed to carry on the tradition of the medieval moralities, to provide historic stories and memorials of historic figures, and to teach morality. When King Lear was published as a quarto in 1608 it was called a "true English Chronicle". Some notable examples of the English chronicle include George Peele's Edward I, John Lyly’s Midas (1591), Robert Greene's Orlando Furioso, Thomas Heywood’s Edward IV, and Robert Wilson's Three Lords and Three Ladies of London (1590). Holinshed's Chronicles (1587) contributed greatly to the plays of Shakespeare's Henriad, and also advanced the development of the English chronicle play.[31][32]
Criticism
In his book, Shakespeare’s History Plays, E. M. W. Tillyard's mid-20th century theories regarding the eight-play Henriad, have been extremely influential. Tillyard supports the idea of the Tudor myth, which considers England's 15th century to be a dark time of lawlessness and warfare, that after many battles eventually led to a golden age of the Tudor Period. This theory suggests that Shakespeare believed this orthodoxy and promoted it with his Henriad. The Tudor myth is a theory that suggests that Shakespeare, with his history plays, contributes to the idea that the civil wars of the Henriad were all part of a divine plan that would ultimately lead to the Tudors — which in turn would support Shakespeare's monarch, Elizabeth. The argument against Tillyard's theory is that when these plays were written Elizabeth was approaching the end of her life and reign, and how her successor would be determined was causing the idea of a civil war to be a source of concern, not glorification. Furthermore, the lack of an heir to Elizabeth tended to outmode the idea that the Tudors were a divine solution.[33] Critics including Paul Murray Kendall and Jan Kott, challenged the idea of the Tudor myth, and these newer ideas caused the image of Shakespeare to change so much he now seemed to become instead a prophetic voice in the wilderness who saw the existential meaninglessness of this history of warfare.[34][35][36]
If presented as one very long dramatic event, the plays of the Henriad do not cohere well together. In performance the plays can seem jumbled and tonally mismatched, and narratives are at times oddly dropped and resumed.[37]
Numerous inconsistencies exist between the individual plays of the first tetralogy, which is typical of serialized drama in the early modern playhouses. James Marino suggests, "It is more remarkable that any coherency appears at all in a 'series' cobbled together from elements of three different repertories". The four plays (of the first tetralogy) variously originated from three different theatre companies: The Queen's Men, Pembroke's Men and Chamberlain's Men.[38]
An earlier use
An earlier use of the word "Henriad" to refer to a group of Shakespeare's plays occurs in a book published in 1876 titled Shakespeare’s Diversions; A Medley of Motley Wear. The author does not define the word, but indicates that the plays in which the character, Mistress Quickly, hostess of the Boar's Head Tavern, appears include "The English Henriad" as well as The Merry Wives of Windsor. The source also indicates that the number of plays she appears in is four — "one more than is granted to Falstaff".[39] The four plays that Mistress Quickly appears in are The Merry Wives of Windsor, the two parts of Henry IV, and Henry V.
The French critic and playwright, Voltaire, is known for making extreme criticisms of Shakespeare that he would then balance with more positive comments. For example, Voltaire called Shakespeare a "barbarian" and his works a "huge dunghill" that contains some pearls.[40] Voltaire wrote an epic poem titled La Henriade (1723), which is sometimes translated as Henriade. Voltaire's poem is based on Henry IV of France (1553 – 1610).[41]Algernon Charles Swinburne points out how the two similarly titled works, Shakespeare's and Voltaire's, are dissimilar, in that Shakespeare's "differs from Voltaire’s as Zaïre [a tragedy written by Voltaire] differs from Othello."[42]
Sir John Falstaff is a fictional character who appears in three plays by William Shakespeare and is eulogised in a fourth. His significance as a fully developed character is primarily formed in the plays Henry IV, Part 1 and Part 2, where he is a companion to Prince Hal, the future King Henry V of England. Falstaff is also featured as the buffoonish suitor of two married women in The Merry Wives of Windsor. Though primarily a comic figure, he embodies a depth common to Shakespeare's major characters. A fat, vain, and boastful knight, he spends most of his time drinking at the Boar's Head Inn with petty criminals, living on stolen or borrowed money. Falstaff leads the apparently wayward Prince Hal into trouble, and is repudiated when Hal becomes king.
Henry VI, Part 1, often referred to as 1 Henry VI, is a history play by William Shakespeare—possibly in collaboration with Thomas Nashe and others—believed to have been written in 1591. It is set during the lifetime of King Henry VI of England.
Henry VI, Part 2 is a history play by William Shakespeare believed to have been written in 1591 and set during the lifetime of King Henry VI of England. Whereas Henry VI, Part 1 deals primarily with the loss of England's French territories and the political machinations leading up to the Wars of the Roses, and Henry VI, Part 3 deals with the horrors of that conflict, 2 Henry VI focuses on the King's inability to quell the bickering of his nobles, the death of his trusted adviser Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, the rise of the Duke of York and the inevitability of armed conflict. As such, the play culminates with the opening battle of the War, the First Battle of St Albans (1455).
Henry IV, Part 1 is a history play by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written not later than 1597. The play dramatises part of the reign of King Henry IV of England, beginning with the battle at Homildon Hill late in 1402, and ending with King Henry's victory in the Battle of Shrewsbury in mid-1403. In parallel to the political conflict between King Henry and a rebellious faction of nobles, the play depicts the escapades of King Henry's son, Prince Hal, and his eventual return to court and favour.
In the First Folio, the plays of William Shakespeare were grouped into three categories: comedies, histories, and tragedies. The histories—along with those of contemporary Renaissance playwrights—help define the genre of history plays. The Shakespearean histories are biographies of English kings of the previous four centuries and include the standalones King John, Edward III and Henry VIII as well as a continuous sequence of eight plays. These last are considered to have been composed in two cycles. The so-called first tetralogy, apparently written in the early 1590s, covers the Wars of the Roses saga and includes Henry VI, Parts I, II & III and Richard III. The second tetralogy, finished in 1599 and including Richard II, Henry IV, Parts I & II and Henry V, is frequently called the Henriad after its protagonist Prince Hal, the future Henry V.
Sir John Oldcastle is an Elizabethan play about John Oldcastle, a controversial 14th-/15th-century rebel and Lollard who was seen by some of Shakespeare's contemporaries as a proto-Protestant martyr.
A tetralogy is a compound work that is made up of four distinct works. The name comes from the Attic theater, in which a tetralogy was a group of three tragedies followed by a satyr play, all by one author, to be played in one sitting at the Dionysia as part of a competition.
Ancient Pistol is a swaggering soldier who appears in three plays by William Shakespeare. Although full of grandiose boasts about his prowess, he is essentially a coward. The character is introduced in Henry IV, Part 2, and reappears in The Merry Wives of Windsor and Henry V.
The Tudor myth is the tradition in English history, historiography and literature that presents the 15th century, including the Wars of the Roses, in England as a dark age of anarchy and bloodshed. The narrative that the Tudor myth perpetrated was curated with the political purpose of promoting the Tudor period of the 16th century as a golden age of peace, law, order, and prosperity. The hope was to elevate King Henry VII's rulership compared to his predecessors.
Shakespeare's plays are a canon of approximately 39 dramatic works written by the English poet, playwright, and actor William Shakespeare. The exact number of plays as well as their classifications as tragedy, history, comedy, or otherwise is a matter of scholarly debate. Shakespeare's plays are widely regarded as among the greatest in the English language and are continually performed around the world. The plays have been translated into every major living language.
Mistress Nell Quickly is a fictional character who appears in several plays by William Shakespeare. She is an inn-keeper, who runs the Boar's Head Tavern, at which Sir John Falstaff and his disreputable cronies congregate.
The Famous Victories of Henry the fifth: Containing the Honourable Battel of Agin-court: As it was plaide by the Queenes Maiesties Players, is an anonymous Elizabethan play, which is generally thought to be a source for Shakespeare's Henriad. It was entered by printer Thomas Creede in the Stationers' Register in 1594, but the earliest known edition is from 1598. A second quarto was published in 1617.
History is one of the three main genres in Western theatre alongside tragedy and comedy, although it originated, in its modern form, thousands of years later than the other primary genres. For this reason, it is often treated as a subset of tragedy. A play in this genre is known as a history play and is based on a historical narrative, often set in the medieval or early modern past. History emerged as a distinct genre from tragedy in Renaissance England. The best known examples of the genre are the history plays written by William Shakespeare, whose plays still serve to define the genre. History plays also appear elsewhere in Western literature, such as Thomas Heywood's Edward IV, Schiller's Mary Stuart or the Dutch national poet Joost van den Vondel's play Gijsbrecht van Aemstel.
The Wars of the Roses was a 1963 theatrical adaptation of William Shakespeare's first historical tetralogy, which deals with the conflict between the House of Lancaster and the House of York over the throne of England, a conflict known as the Wars of the Roses. The plays were adapted by John Barton, and directed by Barton and Peter Hall at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre. The production starred David Warner as Henry VI, Peggy Ashcroft as Margaret of Anjou, Donald Sinden as the Duke of York, Paul Hardwick as the Duke of Gloucester, Janet Suzman as Joan la Pucelle, Brewster Mason as the Earl of Warwick, Roy Dotrice as Edward IV, Susan Engel as Queen Elizabeth and Ian Holm as Richard III.
Henry VI is a series of three history plays by William Shakespeare, set during the lifetime of King Henry VI of England. Henry VI, Part 1 deals with the loss of England's French territories and the political machinations leading up to the Wars of the Roses, as the English political system is torn apart by personal squabbles and petty jealousy; Henry VI, Part 2 depicts the King's inability to quell the bickering of his nobles, and the inevitability of armed conflict; and Henry VI, Part 3 deals with the horrors of that conflict.
The Hollow Crown is a series of British television film adaptations of William Shakespeare's history plays.
"Henry IV, Part I" and "Henry IV, Part II" are the second and third episodes of the first series of the British television series The Hollow Crown, based on the second set of plays in William Shakespeare's Henriad. The episodes were produced by Sam Mendes, directed and adapted by Richard Eyre and starred Jeremy Irons as King Henry IV, Simon Russell Beale as Falstaff and Tom Hiddleston as Prince Hal. Much of the cast and crew of both episodes overlap and the plot flows directly from the first to the second. The episodes were first broadcast on 7 July and 14 July 2012 on BBC Two.
The King is a 2019 epic historical drama film directed by David Michôd, based on several plays from William Shakespeare's Henriad. The screenplay was written by Michôd and Joel Edgerton, who both produced the film with Brad Pitt, Dede Gardner, Jeremy Kleiner, and Liz Watts. The King includes an ensemble cast led by Timothée Chalamet as the Prince of Wales and later King Henry V of England, alongside Edgerton, Sean Harris, Lily-Rose Depp, Robert Pattinson, and Ben Mendelsohn.
Algernon Charles Swinburne was an English poet, playwright, novelist and critic. He wrote many plays - all tragedies - and collections of poetry such as Poems and Ballads, and contributed to the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica.
Brave Spirits Theatre was a small, non-Equity theater based in Arlington, VA. The company was founded in 2011 by Charlene V. Smith and Victoria Reinsel. Brave Spirits was a “feminist-leaning classics troupe”, which produces plays by Shakespeare and his contemporaries, the era of “verse and violence”. The company regularly cast women in traditionally male roles. In doing so, the roles are often fully re-gendered: for example, in the company's repertory production of Henry IV, Part I and Henry IV, Part II, the lead characters were portrayed as Queen Henri IV, Princess Hallie, and Dame Jill Falstaff, with Doll Tearsheet switched to Dick Tearsheet. In late 2020, it was announced that due to the Covid-19 pandemic, Brave Spirits Theatre would be shutting down, with the company's final project being audio recordings of the 8 shows that they were producing before Covid-19.
References
↑ Dobson, Michael. Wells, Stanley. "Henriad". The Oxford Companion to Shakespeare. Oxford University Press (2015) ISBN9780198708735
↑ Zarin, Cynthia. "Nine Hours of Shakespeare." The New Yorker Magazine. 15 May 2016
↑ Skura, Meredith Anne. Shakespeare the Actor and the Purposes of Playing. University of Chicago Press, 1993. p. 131. ISBN9780226761800
↑ Kernan, Alvin, B. The Henriad: Shakespeare’s Major History Plays.The Yale Review, p. 55 (1969)
↑ Kernan, Alvin, B. ed. Modern Shakespeare Criticism. Harcourt Brace (1970). pp. 245-75
↑ Danson, Lawrence. Shakespeare’s Dramatic Genres. Oxford University Press (2000). ISBN9780198711728 p. 149
↑ Voltaire. The Henriad; a Poem. Published by Sydney Smith (1834)
↑ Kernan, Alvin, B. The Henriad: Shakespeare’s Major History Plays.The Yale Review, p. 58 (1969)
↑ Bloom, Harold. Falstaff: Give Me Life. Simon and Schuster. (2017) p. 143. ISBN9781501164132
↑ Brustein, Robert. Letters to a Young Actor. 2009. p. 22. ISBN9780786734023
↑ Keyishian, Harry. "The Progress of Revenge in The First Henriad". Pendleton, Thomas A. editor. Henry VI: Critical Essays. Psychology Press, 2001. p. 67-77. ISBN9780815333012
↑ Arnold, Oliver. The Third Citizen: Shakespeare's Theater and the Early Modern House of Commons. JHU Press, 2007. p. 76-80. ISBN9780801885044
↑ Marino, James J. Owning William Shakespeare: The King's Men and Their Intellectual Property. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011 ISBN9780812205770
↑ Tillyard, E. M. W. Shakespeare’s History Plays. Chatto & Windus (1944) ISBN978-0701111571 pp. 10 - 13, 319-322
↑ Calderwood, James. Metadrama in Shakespeare's Henriad: Richard II to Henry V. University of California Press, 1979. ISBN9780520036529 p. 1-12
↑ Pendleton, Thomas. Henry VI; Critical Essays. The Progress of Revenge, the First Henriad. Routledge, 2001. ISBN9781134828388
↑ Henneman, John Bell. Shakespearean and Other Papers. The University Press (1911) p. 11 & 85.
↑ Crane, Mary Thomas. "The Shakespearean Tetralogy". Shakespeare Quarterly. Vol. 36, No. 3. Oxford Univ. Press. (1985), pp. 282-299
↑ Tillyard, E. M. W. Shakespeare’s History Plays. Chatto & Windus (1944) ISBN978-0701111571
↑ Hawkins, Sherman. "Structural Pattern in Shakespeare's Histories". Studies in Philology. Vol. 88, No. 1 Univ. North Carolina Press. (1991), pp. 16-45
↑ Wilders, John. The Lost Garden; a View of Shakespeare’s English and Roman History Plays. Rownan & Littlefield (1978). pp. vi-xi. ISBN978-0333244708
↑ Sitwell, Edith. A Notebook on William Shakespeare. Macmillan & Co. Ltd. (1948) P. 185
↑ Tillyard, E. M. W. Shakespeare’s History Plays. Chatto & Windus (1944) ISBN978-0701111571 p. 215-233
↑ Swinburne, Algernon Charles. A Study of Shakespeare. Library of Alexandria (1880). ISBN9781465588272 p. 154.
↑ Kennedy, H. A. author."Shakespeare Falstaff & Queen Elizabeth." Knowles, James. editor.The Nineteenth Century, a Monthly Review. (1896) Volume 39. Leonard Scott Publication. p. 319
↑ Alberge, Dalya. "Christopher Marlowe credited as one of Shakespeare's co-writers". The Guardian. 23 October 2016.
↑ Shakespeare, William. The New Oxford Shakespeare: Modern Critical Edition. Oxford University Press (2016) p. vii. ISBN978-0199591152
↑ Pollack-Pelzner, Daniel. "The Radical Argument of the New Oxford Shakespeare". The New Yorker Magazine. 19 February 2017.
↑ Ward, A.W. editor. "Phyllyp Sparowe”. The Cambridge History of English and American Literature’' Cambridge University (1907–21) Volume III. Renascence and Reformation.
↑ Brockett, Oscar G. History of the Theatre. Pearson, 2014., p. 107
↑ Tillyard, E. M. W. Shakespeare’s History Plays. Chatto & Windus (1944) ISBN978-0701111571
↑ Burden, Dennis. "Shakespeare History Plays: 1952 - 1983". Shakespeare Survey, volume 38, Cambridge University Press (1985). Wells, Stanley, editor. p. 1-18
↑ Merrix, Robert P. "Shakespeare’s Histories and the New Bardolators". SEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900. Vol. 19, No. 2, Elizabethan and Jacobean Drama, pp. 179-196. Rice University Press. (1979)
↑ Tillyard, E. M. W. Shakespeare’s History Plays. Chatto & Windus (1944) ISBN978-0701111571 p. 10
↑ Green, Jesse. "Theater Review: 13 Hours of Shakespeare’s Henrys, in Brooklyn". Vulture. 6 April 2016.
↑ Marino, James J. Owning William Shakespeare: The King's Men and Their Intellectual Property. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011 ISBN9780812205770
↑ Jacox, Francis. Shakespeare’s Diversions: A Medley of Motley Wear. Publisher: Daldy, Isbister & Co. 56 Ludgate Hill. (1876). pp. 437-438
↑ Lee, Sidney. A Life of William Shakespeare. Cambridge University Press (2012). ISBN9781108048194 p. 349.
↑ Voltaire. The Henriade; with the Battle of Fontenoy: Dissertations on Man, Law of Nature, Destruction of Lisbon, Temple of Taste, And Temple of Friendship, From the French of M. De Voltaire; With Notes From All the Commentators. Derby & Jackson (1859)
↑ Swinburne, Algernon Charles. A Study of Shakespeare. Library of Alexandria (1880). ISBN9781465588272 p. 154.
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