History of mining in Chile

Last updated

During most of Chile's history, from 1500 to the present, mining has been an important economic activity. 16th century mining was oriented towards the exploitation of gold placer deposits using encomienda labour. After a period of decline in the 17th century mining resurged in the 18th and early 19th century this time revolving chiefly around silver. In the 1870s silver mining declined sharply. Chile took over the highly lucrative saltpetre mining districts of Peru and Bolivia in the War of the Pacific (1879–83). In the first half of the 20th century copper mining overshadowed the declining saltpetre mining.

Contents

Pre-Hispanic mining

Incas exploited placer gold in the northern half of Chile prior to the arrival of the Spanish. [1] It has been claimed that the Inca Empire expanded into Diaguita lands because of its mineral wealth. This hypothesis was as of 1988 under dispute. [2] An expansion of this hypothesis is that the Incas would have invaded the relatively well-populated Eastern Diaguita valleys (present-day Argentina) to obtain labor to send to Chilean mining districts. [2]

Archaeologists Tom Dillehay and Américo Gordon claim Incan yanakuna extracted gold south of the Incan frontier in free Mapuche territory. Following this thought, the main motive for Incan expansion into Mapuche territory would have been to access gold mines. [3]

About 74 km northeast of Copiapó in Viña del Cerro Incas had one of its largest mining and mellargy centers of Qullasuyu. [4] There is evidence of gold, silver and copper metallurgy at the site, including the production of bronze. [4]

Besides gold indigenous people in Chile did also mined native copper and copper minerals producing copper bracelets, earrings and weapons. The use of copper in Chile can be traced to 500 BC. [1] While Pre-Hispanic Mapuche tools are known to have been relatively simple and made of wood and stone a few them were actually made of copper and bronze. [5] [6]

Colonial mining (1541–1810)

Pedro de Valdivia the conquistador that bought much of Chile under Spanish rule and initiated mining on behalf of the Spanish. Pedro Marino de Lobera records that a common story in Chile at the time of Valdivia's death was that Valdivia had been killed by Mapuches that forced him to drink molten gold. Pedro de Valdivia.jpg
Pedro de Valdivia the conquistador that bought much of Chile under Spanish rule and initiated mining on behalf of the Spanish. Pedro Mariño de Lobera records that a common story in Chile at the time of Valdivia's death was that Valdivia had been killed by Mapuches that forced him to drink molten gold.

Early Spaniards extracted gold from placer deposits using indigenous labour. [1] This contributed to usher the Arauco War as native Mapuches lacked a tradition of forced labour like the Andean mita and largely refused to serve the Spanish. [8] The key area of the Arauco War were the valleys around Cordillera de Nahuelbuta where the Spanish designs for this region was to exploit the placer deposits of gold using unfree Mapuche labour from the nearby and densely populated valleys. [9] Deaths related to mining contributed to a population decline among native Mapuches. [8] Another site of Spanish mining was the city Villarrica. At this city the Spanish mined gold placers and silver. [10] The original site of the city was likely close to modern Pucón. [10] However at some point in the 16th century it is presumed the gold placers were buried by lahars flowing down from nearby Villarrica Volcano. This prompted settlers to relocate the city further west at its modern location. [10]

While of less importance than gold districts in the south the Spanish did also carried out mining operations in Central Chile. There the whole economy was oriented towards mining. As indigenous populations in Central Chile declined to about 30% its 1540s population towards the end of the 16th century and gold deposits became depleted the Spanish of Central Chile begun to focus on livestock operations. [11]

Mining activity declined in the late 16th century as the richest part of placer deposits, which are usually the most shallow, became exhausted. [1] The decline was aggravated by the collapse of the Spanish cities in the south following the battle of Curalaba (1598) which meant for the Spaniards the loss of both the main gold districts and the largest indigenous labour sources. [12] Gold mining became a tabu among Mapuches in colonial times, and gold mining often prohibited under death penalty. [13]

Compared to the 16th and 18th centuries Chilean mining activity in the 17th century was very limited. [14] Gold production totaled as little as 350 kg over the whole century. [1] Chile exported minor amounts of copper to the rest of the Viceryoalty of Peru in the 17th century. [15] Chile saw an unprecedented revival of its mining activity in the 18th century with annual gold production rising from 400 to 1000 kg over the course of the century and the silver annual production rising from 1000 to 5000 kg in the same interval. [16] Chilean copper mining of high-grade oxidized copper minerals and melted with charcoal produced 80,000 to 85,000 tons of copper in the 1541–1810 period. [1]

Gold, silver and copper from Chilean mining begun to be exported directly to Spain via the Straits of Magellan and Buenos Aires first in the 18th century. [17]

By the first half of the 18th century sulfur was being mined from the extinct volcanoes in the Andes around Copiapó. [18] This element was crucial for the fabrication of gunpowder. [19]

Early Spanish conquistadores and explorers were aware of the existence of coal in Chilean territory. For example, Diego de Rosales noted that when governor García Hurtado de Mendoza and his men stayed in Quiriquina Island (36.5° S) in 1557 they made fire using local coals. [20] In Magallanes Region coal was first discovered by the expedition of Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa who visited the Straits of Magellan in 1584. [21]

Silver rushes and early coal mining (1810–1870)

Drawing of an early 19th-century Chilean miner. Minero Chile siglo XIX.jpg
Drawing of an early 19th-century Chilean miner.

Following the discovery of silver at Agua Amarga (1811) and Arqueros (1825) the Norte Chico mountains north of La Serena (part of the Chilean Iron Belt) were exhaustively prospected. [22] [23] [24] In 1832 prospector Juan Godoy found a silver outcrop (reventón) 50 km south of Copiapó in Chañarcillo. [22] The finding attracted thousands of people to the place and generated significant wealth. [23] After the discovery of Chañarcillo, many other ores were discovered near Copiapó well into the 1840s. [22] Copiapó experienced a large demographic and urbanistic growth during the rush. [22] The town became a centre for trade and services of a large mining district. [23] The mining zone slowly grew northwards into the diffuse border with Bolivia. [24] At the end of the silver rush rich miners had diversified their assets into banking, agriculture, trade and commerce all over Chile. [22]

A last major discovery of silver occurred 1870 in Caracoles in Bolivian territory adjacent to Chile. [24] Apart from being discovered by Chileans, the ore was also extracted with Chilean capital and miners. [24] [25]

In the 19th century Claudio Gay and Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna where among the first to raise the question of the deforestation of Norte Chico caused by the firewood demands of the mining activity. Despite the reality of the degradation caused by mining, and contrary to popular belief, the Norte Chico forests were not pristine either before the onset of mining in the 18th century. [26] Salpeter mining in Tarapacá, then part of Peru, caused also a degradation of the arid forests of Pampa del Tamarugal. The rustic mineral processing using the paradas method demanded great amounts of firewood leading to large-scale deforestation around La Tirana and Canchones and some areas to the south of these localities. [27]

Besides silver coal mining also boomed in the early republican period. As coal mining was commonplace in industrialized Britain early British travellers had the opportunity to comment on Chilean coals before they were profitable. British travelers had differing opinions on the economic value of Chilean coals, or more specifically, the coals of Zona Central Sur (36–38° S). While David Barry found the coals to be of good quality, Charles Darwin held them of to be of little value. The British consul in Chile correctly predicted in 1825 that the area around the mouth of Biobío River would be a centre of coal industry. [28] It was however not until the mid-19th century that large scale coal mining begun in the region. [29] [20] The initial trigger of coal mining was the arrival of steamships to the port of Talcahuano. These steam ships, most of whom were English, bought initially the coal very cheaply and the exploited coal seams were easy to work as they laid almost at ground level. [30] Demand of coal stemmed not only from steam navigation but from the growth of copper mining in northern Chile. As wood in northern Chile became increasingly scarce copper smelters recurred to the coals found around Zona Central Sur. Demand from copper smelters proved in 1840s crucial to stabilize the coal business. [31]

Coal mining operations were chiefly owned by Chilean businessmen contrasting with the heavy foreign involvement seen in silver mining and later also in salpeter and copper mining. [28] Silver mining and coal mining were somewhat linked by Matías Cousiño a silver mining magnate who expanded into the coal business. [32] Cousiño begun mining operations in Lota in 1852 [20] a move that rapidly transformed the town, from being a sparsely populated frontier zone in the mid-19th century, into a large industrial hub that attracted immigrants from all over Chile well into the 20th century. [30]

Saltpetre Era (1870–1930)

Starting in 1873, Chile's economy deteriorated. [33] Several of Chile's key exports were out-competed [34] [35] and Chile's silver mining income dropped. [34] In the mid-1870s, Peru nationalized its nitrate industry, affecting both British and Chilean interests. [33] Contemporaries considered the crisis the worst ever of independent Chile. [33] Chilean newspaper El Ferrocarril predicted 1879 to be "a year of mass business liquidation". [33] In 1878, then-President Aníbal Pinto expressed his concern through the following statement: [33] [34]

If a new mining discovery or some novelty of that sort does not come to improve the actual situation, the crisis that has long been felt will worsen

—  Aníbal Pinto, president of Chile, 1878.
View of Humberstone, a saltpetre work from the Saltpetre Republic epoch. Humberstone.jpg
View of Humberstone, a saltpetre work from the Saltpetre Republic epoch.

It was during this context of economic crisis that Chile became involved the costly Saltpetre War (1879–1883) wrestling control of mineral-rich provinces of Peru and Bolivia. The notion that Chile entered the war to obtain economical gains has been a topic of debate among historians. [34] [36] [37]

As the victor and possessor of a new coastal territory following the War of the Pacific, Chile benefited by gaining a lucrative territory with significant mineral income. The national treasury grew by 900 percent between 1879 and 1902, due to taxes coming from the newly acquired lands. [38] British involvement and control of the nitrate industry rose significantly, [39] but from 1901 to 1921 Chilean ownership increased from 15% to 51%. [40] The growth of Chilean economy sustained in its saltpetre monopoly [41] meant, compared to the previous growth cycle (1832–1873), that the economy became less diversified and overly dependent on a single natural resource. [34] In addition the Chilean nitrate, used worldwide as fertilizer, was sensitive to economic downturns as farmers made cuts on fertilizer use one of their earliest economic measures in the face of economic decline. [41] It has been questioned on whether the nitrate wealth conquered in the War of the Pacific was a resource curse or not. [42] During the Nitrate Epoch the government increased public spending but was however accused of squandering money. [34]

Photograph of Chilean salpeter miners. Interior de las faenas salitreras en Chile.jpg
Photograph of Chilean salpeter miners.

When conquering Peruvian territories in 1880 Chile imposed a 1.6 $ tax on each quintal exported. This tax made saltpetre more expensive at a global scale, in other words it was a "tax exportation". In the 1920s this tax begun to be considered obsolete by Chilean politicians. [43] A new mining code was enacted in 1888. [44]

From 1876 to 1891 Chilean copper mining declined, [1] being largely replaced in international markets by copper from the United States and Río Tinto in Spain. [34] This was in part due to the exhaustion of supergene (shallow) high-grade ores. The introduction of new extraction techniques and technology in the early 20th century contributed to a significant resurgence of copper mining. Technological innovation in drilling, blasting, loading and transport made it profitable to mine large low-grade porphyry copper deposits. [1]

Copper Era (1930–2010)

Chilean copper miners Chilean Miners.jpg
Chilean copper miners

In the 1910s the main copper mining countries were Chile, Spain and the United States. The tax paid by copper mining amounted to "little or nothing". In the 1950s the taxation on copper mining was reformed. [43] In 1932 a new mining code replaced the older code from 1888. [44]

The Law on Mining Concessions was rectified in 1982 moving mining concessions rights away from the ad coelum principle. [45]

Investments in mineral exploration in Chile reached a maximum 1997 and declined from there on to 2003. As a consequence of this by 2004 there were relatively few active mining projects. From 1995 to 2004 the principal discoveries were the copper porphyries of Escondida and Toki. In addition these in the 1995–2004 period a larger group medium-sized mineral deposits (with non-mineralized cover rocks) were discovered including Candelaria, El Peñón, Gaby Sur, Pascua Lama and Spence. [44]

Another tendency by 2004 was that the number of companies involved in exploration had diminished due to mergers. [44]

Chile was, in 2019, the world's largest producer of copper, [46] iodine [47] and rhenium, [48] the second largest producer of lithium [49] and molybdenum, [50] the sixth largest producer of silver, [51] the seventh largest producer of salt, [52] the eighth largest producer of potash, [53] the thirteenth producer of sulfur [54] and the thirteenth producer of iron ore [55] in the world. The country also has considerable gold production: between 2006 and 2017, the country produced annual amounts ranging from 35.9 tonnes in 2017 to 51.3 tonnes in 2013. [56]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Huilliche people</span> Ethnic group native to south-central Chile

The Huilliche, Huiliche or Huilliche-Mapuche are the southern partiality of the Mapuche macroethnic group in Chile and Argentina. Located in the Zona Sur, they inhabit both Futahuillimapu and, as the Cunco or Veliche subgroup, the northern half of Chiloé Island. The Huilliche are the principal indigenous people of those regions. According to Ricardo E. Latcham the term Huilliche started to be used in Spanish after the second founding of Valdivia in 1645, adopting the usage of the Mapuches of Araucanía for the southern Mapuche tribes. Huilliche means 'southerners' A genetic study showed significant affinities between Huilliches and indigenous peoples east of the Andes, which suggests but does not prove a partial origin in present-day Argentina.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mapuche</span> Ethnic group in South America

The Mapuche is a group of native indigenous inhabitants of south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina, including parts of Patagonia. The collective term refers to a wide-ranging ethnicity composed of various groups who share a common social, religious, and economic structure, as well as a common linguistic heritage as Mapudungun speakers. Their homelands once extended from Choapa Valley to the Chiloé Archipelago and later spread eastward to Puelmapu, a land comprising part of the Argentine pampa and Patagonia. Today the collective group makes up over 80% of the indigenous peoples in Chile and about 9% of the total Chilean population. The Mapuche are concentrated in the Araucanía region. Many have migrated from rural areas to the cities of Santiago and Buenos Aires for economic opportunities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diaguita</span> Indigenous people who live in South America

The Diaguita people are a group of South American indigenous people native to the Chilean Norte Chico and the Argentine Northwest. Western or Chilean Diaguitas lived mainly in the Transverse Valleys that incise semi-arid mountains. Eastern or Argentine Diaguitas lived in the provinces of La Rioja and Catamarca and part of the provinces of Salta, San Juan and Tucumán. The term Diaguita was first applied to peoples and archaeological cultures by Ricardo E. Latcham in the early 20th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Economic history of Chile</span> Timeline of the economics of Chile

The economy of Chile has shifted substantially over time from the heterogeneous economies of the diverse indigenous peoples to an early husbandry-oriented economy and finally to one of raw material export and a large service sector. Chile's recent economic history has been the focus of an extensive debate, as it pioneered neoliberal economic policies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Destruction of the Seven Cities</span> 1598 destruction of seven Spanish settlements in South America by a Mapuche–Huilliche uprising

The Destruction of the Seven Cities is a term used in Chilean historiography to refer to the destruction or abandonment of seven major Spanish outposts in southern Chile around 1600, caused by the Mapuche and Huilliche uprising of 1598. The Destruction of the Seven Cities, in traditional historiography, marks the end of the Conquest period and the beginning of the proper colonial period.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agriculture in Chile</span>

Agriculture in Chile encompasses a wide range of different activities due to its particular geography, climate, geology and human factors. Historically agriculture is one of the bases of Chile's economy, now agriculture and allied sectors—like forestry, logging and fishing—account only for 4.9% of the GDP as of 2007 and employed 13.6% of the country's labor force. Some major agricultural products of Chile include grapes, apples, onions, wheat, corn, oats, peaches, garlic, asparagus, beans, beef, poultry, wool, fish and timber. Due to its geographical isolation and strict customs policies, Chile is free from diseases such as Mad Cow, fruit fly and Phylloxera, this plus being located in the southern hemisphere and its wide range of agriculture conditions are considered Chile's main comparative advantages. However, the mountainous landscape of Chile limits the extent and intensity of agriculture so that arable land corresponds only to 2.62% of the total territory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conquest of Chile</span> Period of Chilean history, 1541-1600, period of Spanish conquest

The Conquest of Chile is a period in Chilean historiography that starts with the arrival of Pedro de Valdivia to Chile in 1541 and ends with the death of Martín García Óñez de Loyola in the Battle of Curalaba in 1598, and the destruction of the Seven Cities in 1598–1604 in the Araucanía region.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America</span>

Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America is the extraction, purification and alloying of metals and metal crafting by Indigenous peoples of the Americas prior to European contact in the late 15th century. Indigenous Americans had been using native metals from ancient times, with recent finds of gold artifacts in the Andean region dated to 2155–1936 BCE, and North American copper finds being dated to approximately 5000 BCE. The metal would have been found in nature without the need for smelting, and shaped into the desired form using hot and cold hammering without chemical alteration or alloying. To date "no one has found evidence that points to the use of melting, smelting and casting in prehistoric eastern North America."

The mining sector in Chile is one of the pillars of Chilean economy and copper exports alone stands for more than one third of government income. Most mining in Chile is concentrated to the Norte Grande region spanning most of the Atacama Desert. Mining products of Chile includes copper, gold, silver, molybdenum, iron and coal. Chile was, in 2019, the world's largest producer of copper, iodine and rhenium, the second largest producer of lithium and molybdenum, the sixth largest producer of silver, the seventh largest producer of salt, the eighth largest producer of potash, the thirteenth producer of sulfur and the thirteenth producer of iron ore in the world. In the production of gold, between 2006 and 2017, the country produced annual quantities ranging from 35.9 tons in 2017 to 51.3 tons in 2013.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chañarcillo</span> Mining town in Atacama Region, Chile

Chañarcillo is a town and mine in the Atacama Desert of Copiapó Province, Atacama Region, Chile, located near Vallenar and 60 km from Copiapó. It is noted for its silver mining. The town grew after the Chañarcillo silver mine was discovered on May 16, 1832, by Juan Godoy. This event sparkled the Chilean silver rush. It grew in prominence in the second half of the nineteenth century and became important in the Atacama mining industry and one of the most important mines to the Chilean economy. It was connected by railway before 1862. Today the settlement is largely in ruins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Colonial Chile</span> Period of Chilean history from 1600 to 1810

In Chilean historiography, Colonial Chile is the period from 1600 to 1810, beginning with the Destruction of the Seven Cities and ending with the onset of the Chilean War of Independence. During this time, the Chilean heartland was ruled by Captaincy General of Chile. The period was characterized by a lengthy conflict between Spaniards and native Mapuches known as the Arauco War. Colonial society was divided in distinct groups including Peninsulars, Criollos, Mestizos, Indians and Black people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chilean silver rush</span> Silver rush in Chile (1830–1850)

Between 1830 and 1850, Chilean silver mining grew at an unprecedented pace which transformed mining into one of the country's principal sources of wealth. The rush caused rapid demographic, infrastructural, and economic expansion in the semi-arid Norte Chico mountains where the silver deposits lay. A number of Chileans made large fortunes in the rush and made investments in other areas of the economy of Chile. By the 1850s, the rush was in decline and lucrative silver mining definitively ended in the 1870s. At the same time, mining activity in Chile reoriented to saltpetre operations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Juan Godoy</span> Chilean miner (1800–1842)

Juan Godoy was a Chilean farmer and miner who in 1832 discovered an outcrop (reventón) of silver 50 km (31 mi) south of Copiapó in Chañarcillo sparking the Chilean silver rush.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great Depression in Chile</span>

The Great Depression that begun 1929 was felt strongly in Chile from 1930 to 1932. Saltpetre and copper exports collapsed. The World Economic Survey of the League of Nations declared Chile the worst affected nation by the depression. Such economic devastation worsened Chile's economic prosperity, highlighted particularly in 1932 that exemplifies a rapid fall in exports, imports, GDP and the value of industrial production from pre-depression levels. Chiles exports dropped from US$279m in 1929 to US$35m in 1932, which in real terms corresponds to 1/6 of export level in 1929. In accordance to this time period, Chile's imports fell from US$197m in 1929 to US$26m in 1932. Similarly, real GDP dropped from 100 in 1929 to 67 in 1932, contributed by the fall of the value of production from 100 in 1929 to 77 in 1932 alongside a rapid decrease in the average annual production that reached the equivalent to one quarter of 1929 levels in December 1932. Alongside a decrease in employment in the mining sector, in terms of GDP and productive activity, mining dropped to 26.3 in 1932 from 1929 levels of 100.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mapuche silverwork</span> Aspect of indigenous Chilean culture

Mapuche silverwork is one of the best known aspects of Mapuche material culture. The adornments have been subject to changes in fashion but some designs have resisted change.

Mañil or Magnil was a Mapuche lonko who fought in the 1851 Chilean Revolution and led an uprising in 1859. He was the main chief of the Arribanos and the father of Quilapán who led Mapuche forces in the Occupation of Araucanía.

As an archaeological culture, the Mapuche people of southern Chile and Argentina have a long history which dates back to 600–500 BC. The Mapuche society underwent great transformations after Spanish contact in the mid–16th century. These changes included the adoption of Old World crops and animals and the onset of a rich Spanish–Mapuche trade in La Frontera and Valdivia. Despite these contacts Mapuche were never completely subjugated by the Spanish Empire. Between the 18th and 19th century Mapuche culture and people spread eastwards into the Pampas and the Patagonian plains. This vast new territory allowed Mapuche groups to control a substantial part of the salt and cattle trade in the Southern Cone.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Incas in Central Chile</span>

Inca rule in Chile was brief, it lasted from the 1470s to the 1530s when the Inca Empire was absorbed by Spain. The main settlements of the Inca Empire in Chile lay along the Aconcagua, Mapocho and Maipo rivers. Quillota in Aconcagua Valley was likely the Incas' foremost settlement. The bulk of the people conquered by the Incas in Central Chile were Diaguitas and part of the Promaucae. Incas appear to have distinguished between a "province of Chile" and a "province of Copayapo" neighboring it to the north. In Aconcagua Valley the Incas settled people from the areas of Arequipa and possibly also the Lake Titicaca.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Expulsion of Chileans from Bolivia and Peru in 1879</span>

The Expulsion of Chileans from Bolivia and Peru in 1879 was an ethnic cleansing ordered by of the governments of Bolivia and Peru. The expulsion took place at the beginning of the War of the Pacific (1879-1883) between Chile and Peruvian-Bolivian alliance. Chilean citizens in both nations were ordered to leave within eight days or face internment and confiscation of their property. They were expelled on poorly-built rafts and pontoons at Peruvian ports, or forced to wander through the desert to reach the northernmost positions occupied by the Chilean Army in Antofagasta. The edict was widely popular in Peru and met with little resistance, allowing it to occur quickly.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of agriculture in Chile</span>

Agriculture in Chile has a long history dating back to the Pre-Hispanic period. Indigenous peoples practised varying types of agriculture, from the oases of the Atacama Desert to as far south as the Guaitecas Archipelago. Potato was the staple food in the populous Mapuche lands. Llama and chilihueque herding was practised by various indigenous groups.

[Chile] is rich in pastures and cultivated fields, in which all kind of animals and plants can be breed or grown, there is plenty of very beautiful wood for making houses, and plenty of firewood, and rich gold mines, and all land is full of them...

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Maksaev, Víctor; Townley, Brian; Palacios, Carlos; Camus, Francisco (2006). "6. Metallic ore deposits". In Moreno, Teresa; Gibbons, Wes (eds.). Geology of Chile. Geological Society of London. pp. 179–180. ISBN   9781862392199.
  2. 1 2 Lorandi, A.M. (1988). "Los diaguitas y el tawantinsuyu: Una hipótesis de conflicto". In Dillehay, Tom; Netherly, Patricia (eds.). La frontera del estado Inca (in Spanish). pp. 197–214.
  3. ↑ Dillehay, T.; Gordon, A. (1988). "La actividad prehispánica y su influencia en la Araucanía". In Dillehay, Tom; Netherly, Patricia (eds.). La frontera del estado Inca (in Spanish). pp. 183–196.
  4. 1 2 Cortés Lutz, Guillermo (2017). Chañarcillo, cuando de las montañas brotó la plata (PDF). Cuadernos de Historia (in Spanish). Vol. II. Museo Regional de Atacama. p. 4.
  5. ↑ Villalobos et al. 1974, p. 50.
  6. ↑ Bengoa 2003, pp. 190–191.
  7. ↑ Mariño de Lobera, Pedro (1960). "XLIII". Crónica del Reino de Chile (in Spanish). ...hicieron con él muchas fiestas por burla y escarnio, y por remate trajeron una olla de oro ardiendo y se la presentaron, diciéndole: pues tan amigo eres de oro, hártate agora dél, y para que lo tengas más guardado, abre la boca y bebe aqueste que viene fundido, y diciendo esto lo hicieron como lo dijeron, dándoselo a beber por fuerza, teniendo por fin de su muerte lo que tuvo por fin de su entrada en Chile
  8. 1 2 Bengoa, José (2003). Historia de los antiguos mapuches del sur (in Spanish). Santiago: Catalonia. pp. 252–253. ISBN   956-8303-02-2.
  9. ↑ Zavala C., José Manuel (2014). "The Spanish-Araucanian World of the Purén and Lumaco Valley in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries". In Dillehay, Tom (ed.). The Teleoscopic Polity. Springer. pp. 55–73. ISBN   978-3-319-03128-6.
  10. 1 2 3 Petit-Breuilh 2004, pp. 48–49.
  11. ↑ Contreras Cruces, Hugo (2016). "Migraciones locales y asentamiento indígena en las estancias españolas de Chile central, 1580-1650". Historia (in Spanish). 49 (1): 87–110. doi: 10.4067/S0717-71942016000100004 .
  12. ↑
    • Salazar, Gabriel; Pinto, Julio (2002). Historia contemporánea de Chile III. La economía: mercados empresarios y trabajadores (in Spanish). LOM Ediciones. p. 15. ISBN   956-282-172-2
  13. ↑ Payàs Puigarnau, Getrudis; Villena Araya, Belén (2021-12-15). "Indagaciones en torno al significado del oro en la cultura mapuche. Una exploración de fuentes y algo más" [Inquiries on the Meaning of Gold in Mapuche Culture. A review of sources and something more]. Estudios Atacameños (in Spanish). 67. doi:10.22199/issn.0718-1043-2021-0028. S2CID   244279716.
  14. ↑ Villalobos et al. 1974, p. 168.
  15. ↑ Villalobos, Sergio; Retamal Ávila, Julio; Serrano, Sol (2000). Historia del pueblo Chileno (in Spanish). Vol. 4. p. 154.
  16. ↑ Villalobos et al. 1974, pp. 226–227.
  17. ↑ Salazar & Pinto 2002, pp. 16–17.
  18. ↑ Petit-Breuilh 2004, p. 55.
  19. ↑ Petit-Breuilh 2004, p. 44.
  20. 1 2 3 Davis, Eliodoro Martín (1990). "Breves recuerdos de algunas actividades mineras del carbón". Actas. Segundo Simposio sobre el Terciario de Chile (in Spanish). Santiago, Chile: Departamento de Geociencias, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Concepción. pp. 189–203.
  21. ↑ Martinic, Mateo (2004). "La minería del carbón en Magallanes entre 1868 - 2003". Historia (in Spanish). 31 (1): 129–167.
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 Villalobos et al. 1974, pp. 469–472.
  23. 1 2 3 Los ciclos mineros del cobre y la plata . Memoria Chilena.
  24. 1 2 3 4 Bethell, Leslie. 1993. Chile Since Independence. Cambridge University Press. p. 13–14.
  25. ↑ "Los Ciclos Mineros del Cobre y la Plata (1820-1880)" [Mining Cycles of Copper and Silver]. Memoria Chilena (in Spanish). Biblioteca Nacional de Chile. Archived from the original on 31 December 2013.
  26. ↑ Camus Gayan, Pablo (2004). "Los bosques y la minería del Norte Chico, S. XIX. Un mito en la representación del paísaje chileno" (PDF). Historia (in Spanish). 37 (II): 289–310. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
  27. ↑ Castro Castro, Luis (2020-07-01). "El bosque de la Pampa del Tamarugal y la industria salitrera: El problema de la deforestación, los proyectos para su manejo sustentable y el debate político (Tarapacá, Peru-Chile 1829-1941)" [The Forest of Pampa del Tamarugal and the Saltpeter Industry: The Deforestation Problem, the Projects for their Sustainable Management and the Political Debate (Tarapacá, Perú-Chile 1829-1941)]. Scripta Nova (in Spanish). Universitat de Barcelona. XXIV (641).
  28. 1 2 Mazzei de Grazia, Leonardo (1997). "Los Británicos y el carbón en Chile" (PDF). Atenea (in Spanish): 137–167.
  29. ↑ Endlicher, Wilfried. 1986. Desarrollo Histórico-genético y División Funcional del Centro Carbonífero [ permanent dead link ]. Revista de Geografía Norte Grande .
  30. 1 2 Vivallos Espinoza, Carlos; Brito Peña, Alejandra (2010). "Inmigración y sectores populares en las minas de carbón de Lota y Coronel (Chile 1850-1900)" [Immigration and popular sectors in the coal mines of Lota and Coronel (Chile 1850-1900)]. Atenea (in Spanish). 501: 73–94.
  31. ↑ Ortega, Luis (1982). "The First Four Decades of the Chilean Coal Mining Industry, 1840-1879". Journal of Latin American Studies. 14 (1): 1–32. doi:10.1017/S0022216X00003564.
  32. ↑ Mazzei, Leonardo (2000). "Expansión de gestiones empresariales desde la minería del norte a la del carbón, Chile, siglo XIX" (PDF). Historia (in Spanish). 46: 91–102.
  33. 1 2 3 4 5 Palma, Gabriel. Trying to 'Tax and Spend' Oneself out of the 'Dutch Disease': The Chilean Economy from the War of the Pacific to the Great Depression. p. 217–240
  34. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Salazar & Pinto 2002, pp. 25–29.
  35. ↑ Villalobos et al. 1974, pp. 6003-605.
  36. ↑ Ortega, Luis (1984). "Nitrates, Chilean Entrepreneurs and the Origins of the War of the Pacific". Journal of Latin American Studies . 16 (2): 337–380. doi:10.1017/S0022216X00007100.
  37. ↑ Sater, William F. (1973). "Chile During the First Months of the War of the Pacific". 5, 1 (pages 133-138 ed.). Cambridge at the University Press: Journal of Latin American Studies: 37.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  38. ↑ Crow, The Epic of Latin America, p. 180
  39. ↑ Foster, John B. & Clark, Brett. (2003). "Ecological Imperialism: The Curse of Capitalism" (accessed September 2, 2005). The Socialist Register 2004, p190–192. Also available in print from Merlin Press.
  40. ↑ Salazar & Pinto 2002, pp. 124-125.
  41. 1 2 Brown, J. R. (1963), "Nitrate Crises, Combinations, and the Chilean Government in the Nitrate Age.", The Hispanic American Historical Review , 43 (2): 230–246, doi:10.2307/2510493, JSTOR   2510493
  42. ↑ Ducoing Ruiz, C. A.; Miró, M. B. (2012), Avoiding the Dutch disease? The Chilean industrial sector in the nitrate trade cycle. 1870–1938. (PDF)
  43. 1 2 Wagner, Gert (2005). "Un siglo de tributación minera". In Lagos, Gustavo (ed.). Minería y desarrollo (in Spanish). Santiago, Chile: Ediciones Universidad Católica de Chile. pp. 193–227. ISBN   956-14-0844-9.
  44. 1 2 3 4 Camus, Francisco (2005). "La minería y la evolución de la exploración en Chile". In Lagos, Gustavo (ed.). Minería y desarrollo (in Spanish). Santiago, Chile: Ediciones Universidad Católica de Chile. pp. 229–270. ISBN   956-14-0844-9.
  45. ↑ Ley Orgánica Constitucional sobre Concesiones Mineras (in Spanish), Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional de Chile, retrieved December 18, 2013
  46. ↑ "USGS Copper Production Statistics" (PDF).
  47. ↑ "USGS Iodine Production Statistics" (PDF).
  48. ↑ "USGS Rhenium Production Statistics" (PDF).
  49. ↑ "USGS Lithium Production Statistics" (PDF).
  50. ↑ "USGS Molybdenum Production Statistics" (PDF).
  51. ↑ "USGS Silver Production Statistics" (PDF).
  52. ↑ "USGS Salt Production Statistics" (PDF).
  53. ↑ "USGS Potash Product ion Statistics" (PDF).
  54. ↑ "USGS Sulfur Production Statistics" (PDF).
  55. ↑ "USGS Iron Ore Production Statistics" (PDF).
  56. ↑ Gold Production in Chile

Bibliography

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.