The history of the Army National Guard in the United States dates from 1636, when the Massachusetts Bay Colony's government organized existing militia companies into three regiments. The National Guard's history continued through the colonial era, including the French and Indian War, and extends into the modern era, including participation in the War on Terror.
The General Court required all able-bodied men between ages 16 and 60, except judges and clergy members, be considered members of the colony's militia, which was organized as the North, South, and East Regiments. Militia members were required to equip themselves, take part in regular training, and report to their units when called. (The lineage of the North, South and East Regiments has been maintained in the 21st century by: 1st Squadron, 182nd Cavalry Regiment and 1st Battalion, 181st Infantry Regiment (North); 1st Battalion, 101st Field Artillery Regiment (South); and the 101st Engineer Battalion (East).)[5]
Early action
18th-century depiction of militia at the 1637 battle known as the Great Swamp Fight.
The militia of the Bay Colony, combined with militias from Plymouth and Saybrook and Native American allies from the Narragansett and Mohegan tribes, fought the Native Americans of Southern New England in the Pequot War (1634–1638). This war resulted in hundreds of deaths, hundreds of Native Americans sold into slavery or scattered throughout North America, and the destruction of the Pequots as a group.[6][7]
The militias of the Southern New England colonies fought Native Americans again in King Philip's War from 1675 to 1676. This conflict led to the decisive defeat of the Narragansets, further straining relationships between Native Americans and white settlers, but enabling continued white settlement of New England.[8]
The American colonists maintained their militias in the late 1600s and 1700s, preferring the militia to a standing army as the result of English experience with a standing army when Oliver Cromwell established a military dictatorship during the First English Civil War.[9] In addition, the colonists had little interest in paying the taxes to maintain permanent garrisons of British troops.[10][11][12] The militias were also an early experiment in democracy, with company grade officers often elected by their men, and the higher officers appointed by colonial governors or legislatures. The colonies did not exert centralized control over the militias or coordinate their efforts. Training typically took place during musters each summer, with militia members reporting for inspection and undergoing several days of training in drill and ceremony.[13][14][15]
When tensions escalated between the British government and the American colonists in the 1760s and 1770s, many citizens began organizing, equipping and training private militia units, in order to have bodies of troops that were outside the control of the royal governors.[28]
Militia members served throughout the Revolution, often near their homes, and frequently for short periods. Militia units served in combat, as well as carrying out guard duty for prisoners, garrisoning of forts, and local patrols.[29][30]
Perhaps the most important role played by the militia was off the battlefield, by affecting the course of the political debate. Militia with Patriot sympathies were well established, particularly in the Mid-Atlantic and New England colonies, causing the British Army to concentrate their forces into larger, more defensible garrisons. With the countryside in the hands of the Patriot militia, neutrals or Loyalists gradually either fled to British garrisons (and from there, often to Canada) or became more accepting of the Patriot goal of independence from Great Britain.[37][38][39]
Post Revolutionary War
During the period of the Articles of Confederation, the weak federal government reduced the Continental Army to a handful of officers and soldiers. The Articles of Confederation required each state to maintain a militia, and allowed the Confederation Congress to form a standing army only with the consent of nine of the thirteen states. Such consent was not forthcoming in an era when the population still harbored a distrust of a standing army, so Congress largely left the defense of the new nation to the state militias.[40]
Constitutional Convention
During the Constitutional Convention in 1787, Federalist delegates argued for a powerful federal government, including federal control of the militia. Federalists anticipated using the military to defend the country if it were attacked, and to enforce federal laws when required.[41]
Anti-Federalists advocated limited federal government, and wanted continued state control over the militias. Anti-Federalists based their arguments on three points. First, the militia could be available to the federal government to resist foreign invasions. Second, the militia served as a police force in each state, enabling it to maintain order and respect for the law. Third, once the new federal government replaced the one under the Articles of Confederation, the militia would be the last defense of the states in the event that a standing army raised by the federal government was employed against the states.[42]
The compromise agreed to by both sides satisfied Anti-Federalists because there was no standing Army, and the militias remained the responsibility of the states, especially the appointment of officers. It satisfied the Federalists because it provided that the militia could be federalized when circumstances required it.[43]
Militia Acts of 1792
Washington reviews regular Army and militia troops at Ft. Cumberland, Maryland before marching to suppress Whiskey Rebellion
The compromise between Federalists and Anti-federalists proved short-lived. In 1791 Arthur St. Clair suffered a major defeat in the Battle of the Wabash while fighting American Indians in the Northwest Territory. In response, Congress authorized the expansion of the army, and allowed for the president to call up the state militias on his own authority if circumstances required it when Congress was not in session.[44]
The First Militia Act of 1792 allowed the president to call up the militias in the event of a foreign invasion, in response to attacks by American Indians, and when required for the enforcement of federal law.[45]
The Second Militia Act of 1792 formalized the organization and training requirements of the state militias. It mandated that the militia consisted of every "free able-bodied white male citizen" between ages 18 and 45, organized as members of a local unit. (A later change expanded eligibility to all men between 18 and 54, regardless of race.) Some occupations were exempt, including stagecoach drivers and ferry operators, who would be expected to support the militia by facilitating the transport of soldiers, supplies and equipment in the event of a mobilization. There were also religious exemptions for Quakers and other denominations that advocated nonviolence.[46][47]
Militia units were required to report for training twice a year, usually in early summer (after spring planting) and late fall (after the autumn harvest but before snow fell). Militia members were required to outfit themselves and report for training or mobilization with a musket or rifle, bayonet, flints, cartridge box, bullets or musket balls, haversack or knapsack, and powder horn and gunpowder.[48]
State legislatures were authorized to organize local units into divisions, regiments and subordinate commands, and federalized militia members were made subject to court martial proceedings for disobeying orders and other offenses.[49]
Part of this reorganization included removing state governors as commanders with military rank (Captain General), and the creation of the state Adjutant General. The Adjutant General reported directly to the governor and served as commander of the state militia.[50] States were slow to respond, and some did not begin appointing Adjutants General until after the War of 1812.
President George Washington used the authority of the Second Act in 1794 to call up the militia in response to the Whiskey Rebellion. He did so shortly before that provision of the Second Act was about to expire. Recognizing that the authority might be needed again in the future, Congress responded by passing the Militia Act of 1795, which made permanent the President's ability to call up the militia on his own authority if Congress was not in session.[51][52]
The use of the militia in the Whiskey Rebellion made clear that at that point, militias were not well organized, effectively trained, or capably led. Washington and other Federalists advocated the creation of a national military academy to standardize training and increase the number of citizens with military experience, and in 1802, the Army established the United States Military Academy at West Point.[53][54]
Artist depiction of Battle of New Orleans, including militia.
At the start of the War of 1812 the regular army totaled less than 12,000 soldiers. Congress authorized expanding the army to 35,000, but recruiting was only moderately successful because of poor pay and a lack of trained leaders.[55] In addition, war with England was less popular in some areas of the country than others, which made it difficult to convince men to enlist. For example, in Vermont residents saw little need to fight the British in the dominion of Canada, which was a profitable trading partner.[56]
Both regular and hastily organized militias took part in battles throughout the war, with mixed results. For example, the militia fled during the Battle of Bladensburg, giving rise to the description of the event as the "Bladensburg races."[57] On the other hand, less than three weeks later the Maryland militia won a strategic victory at the Battle of North Point.[58]Alexander Macomb also led a successful action at Plattsburgh, with his small force of regulars and militia defeating a British attempt to invade upstate New York from Canada.[59] In addition, Andrew Jackson employed militia effectively at the Battle of New Orleans.[60]
In some cases militia members objected to serving outside their home states, arguing that since they were responsible to their state governors and not the federal government, they were not required to serve in other states or take part in invasions.[61] Also, some state governors attempted to prevent their militias from being federalized, since they did not support the war.[62] (The 1827 decision in the case of Martin v. Mott determined that individual militia soldiers could not use the courts to interfere with the president's authority to call upon the militia to execute federal law, suppress insurrection and repel invasion. Jacob Mott, a New York militia member, refused James Madison's order to mobilize and refused to pay the fine levied by a subsequent court-martial. William Martin, a United States Marshal, then seized Mott's property, intending to sell it to satisfy the fine. Mott sued to recover his property and won in state court. Martin then took the case to the United States Supreme Court and prevailed.)[63] According to Professor Joshua Kastenberg at the University of New Mexico, School of Law, the Court, in Martin v. Mott, solidified a presidential authority to determine when an emergency such as an invasion or insurrection existed, but did not stand for the sweep of power that later proponents of the unitary executive theory have argued the decision to stand for. This was because the Court did not do away with the pre-Civil War practice of militia soldiers seeking a legal remedy in the state courts on other claims of legal wrongs committed by the executive branch.[64]
One result of the uneven performance of the militia, the lingering uncertainty over the willingness of militia troops to fight for causes that were unpopular locally, and the unresolved question of state versus federal control of the militia, was that the federal government was wary of attempting to federalize the militia during future conflicts.
Graves of militia members who died at Kellogg's Grove during the Black Hawk War.
Post War of 1812
In the wake of the War of 1812, the federal government attempted to standardize training and laws governing call up and mobilization for militia organizations throughout the United States.
These efforts to reenergize the militia lapsed as the result of the long period of relative peace that followed the War of 1812. (The Era of Good Feelings.) The number of occupations exempt from membership increased, and annual muster days became more picnic and parade than military formation. These factors, coupled with a lack of military leaders with training and experience, led to a gradual decline of the militia.[65]
Despite this decline, the militia was still called to action on occasion, including the Black Hawk War of 1832.[66]
Origin of term "National Guard"
Lafayette and the Naming of the National Guard, New York City, 14 July 1825. National Guard Heritage Series painting by Ken Riley.
The first use of the term "National Guard" by American militia units dates from Lafayette's 1824–1825 tour of the United States. The 2nd Battalion of the 11th New York Artillery– which later became New York's famed 7th Regiment– was one of the units that welcomed Lafayette to New York City, and it adopted the title "National Guard" in honor of Lafayette's service as commander of the Garde Nationale de Paris during the French Revolution. During a review of militia units Lafayette took note of the term, and as it grew in popularity it was adopted by many militia units in the years that followed.[67]
Artist rendition of Battle Chapultepec. Militia veteran and volunteer officer Truman B. Ransom died in attack while commanding his regiment.
In the United States in the mid-1840s, war with Mexico had the support of SouthernDemocrats and their allies in the north, who were anxious to annex Texas and gain states that would permit slavery, while NorthernWhigs and anti-slavery Democrats generally opposed the war because they did not support the extension of slavery.[68] At the start of the war, the Army consisted of between 8,000 and 9,000 soldiers.[69] Enthusiasm for the war, primarily in the south, spurred renewed interest in the militia, and membership began to grow.
The regular Army did not consider militia members to be reliable, and the issue of whether militia units could be employed outside the United States had not been resolved. As a result, Congress expanded the Army by authorizing the creation of ten regiments and the recruiting of 50,000 "volunteers"—individuals who were not in the regular Army and were not militia members subject to state control.[70] In many cases, militia units volunteered for federal service en masse, and usually continued to be led by their militia officers.[71][72]
In the war, approximately 27,000 regular Army soldiers saw active service, as did an estimated 73,000 volunteers and militiamen.[69][73]
President Lincoln summoned 75,000 militia on 15 April 1861 to suppress the insurrection, a call which was limited by law to 90 days and which was rejected by several slaveholding states which had not seceded. In May 1861, Lincoln put out a call for more militia as well as volunteers who would be willing to serve for three years. The Union's July 1861 advance on Manassas, which resulted in defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run was due in large part to the fast-approaching expiration of the initial 90-day militia call-up—the Lincoln administration and Union Army leaders wanted to employ them before they mustered out. The resulting Union loss occurred at the hands of a Confederate force which was also principally composed of militia.[79][80][81][82]
The Union used a version of the Mexican–American War-era volunteer system to expand the size of the Union Army while avoiding the restrictions on how long the militia could be employed. Many militia units were enlisted en masse, and many individuals who enlisted or received commissions in the Union Army were militia veterans.[83]
State Adjutants General and the military staffs of the state governors in the Union were often responsible for equipping, training and transporting recruits and draftees to front line units.[84] In addition, militias often garrisoned forts, performed local defense and border security patrols, and guarded prisoners.[85] On several occasions, local militia became involved in larger battles, such as the Pennsylvania, New York and Rhode Island militia responding during the Gettysburg Campaign, and the militia of several southern states during Sherman's March to the Sea.[86][87]
The Confederate States Army also frequently enlisted militia unit members as a group, and many individuals who joined the CSA were militia veterans.[88] The Confederate states also used their militias for local duty in much the same way as the Union.[89]
Union veterans of the militia who had leadership roles during the war included George J. Stannard.[90]Chester A. Arthur, who served on the staff of the Governor of New York as Quartermaster General with the rank of brigadier general, played a key role in outfitting New York soldiers and transporting them to the front lines.[91]
In 1867, Congress suspended the right of each former Confederate state to organize its militia until it resumed normal functions as part of the United States,[94] and the U.S. Army enforced martial law during Reconstruction[95] and guarded polls during the presidential election of 1876.[96] In addition to enforcing federal law in the south, the Army was used to suppress labor unrest in the North, as during the Great Railroad Strike of 1877.[97] In response Congress passed the Posse Comitatus Act in 1878, which limited the president's ability to employ the military within the United States during peacetime without the consent of Congress.[98][99][100]
Governors could still employ the militia during labor strikes or civil disturbances, and concern over the militia's increased use for this function led states to revise their militia laws and reorganize their units in order to be better prepared to respond to such events.[101][102][103][104]
Expanded use of "National Guard"
In 1861 Connecticut was the first state to formally adopt the title "National Guard" for its militia, and the term became near universal following the Civil War.[105] By the time the National Defense Act of 1916 mandated the use of "National Guard" as the title for all organized militia, only Virginia had not already adopted it.[106]
Spanish–American War
Soldiers of 71st Infantry Regiment, New York National Guard, at Camp Wikoff, 1898.
In the Spanish–American War, the U.S. government again used the volunteer concept to expand the Army without directly addressing the question of when militia could be federalized. As had happened previously, there were militia units that volunteered and were enlisted en masse, as well as individual militia members who joined volunteer units. Examples of the units that volunteered as a group include the 69th New York Infantry and the 71st New York Infantry.[107][108]
The most famous organization of volunteers to fight in the war, the 1st U.S. Volunteer Cavalry, or "Rough Riders", was organized in part from the New Mexico and Arizona National Guards. Originally commanded by regular Army officer Leonard Wood with former New York National Guardsman Theodore Roosevelt as second in command, it came under Roosevelt's leadership when Wood was promoted to command of a brigade.[109][110]
The official founding of the modern Army National Guard is often credited to passage of the Militia Act of 1903, which established a pattern that would continue throughout the 20th century of providing increasing federal resources and wartime relevance for the militia in return for increasing federal control over their arming, organization and training. Also called the Dick Act, for sponsor Charles W. F. Dick, The 1903 law updated the Militia Act of 1792, though it left unresolved the key question of how to compel service of the militia outside the borders of the United States, which did not fall under the Constitutionally permitted uses of the militia "to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrection and repel invasions."[111]
This fundamental restriction on the use of the militia had been an unresolved dilemma for military planners since the War of 1812. This uncertainty led the federal government to bypass the state militias in favor of creating volunteer armies, as was done for the Mexican–American War, the Union Army of the American Civil War, and the U.S. forces raised for the Spanish–American War– though in each of these cases, the volunteer forces raised came largely from already existing militia companies. While the Dick Act did not compel the militia to serve overseas, the expectation was that the increase in federal funding and training would spur increased volunteerism by militia members in the event of a war.
The Dick Act provided that states which wished to receive federal funding for their militia units had to organize their units according to standards dictated by the regular Army, and that National Guard members would have to meet the same training, education and readiness standards as their regular Army counterparts. In exchange, the federal government provided states with funding and equipment to enable militia reorganization and modernization, as well as training by regular Army officers should a governor request it. The Dick Act required that all members of National Guard units attend 24 four-hour drill periods during the course of each year (which were not paid for by the federal government) as well as five days of training at summer encampments (for which the federal government provided pay at the same rate as for soldiers in the regular Army).[112][113][114]
The Dick Act also authorized creation of an office to oversee and coordinate the activities of the state militias. In response, the Army created the Militia Section within the Miscellaneous Division of the Adjutant General's office, staffed by MajorJames Parker and four clerks.[115] This office became the Division of Militia Affairs in 1908, and Erasmus M. Weaver, Jr. was named to head it.[116][117]
National Defense Act of 1916
Co. A, 1st Arkansas Infantry, Deming, New Mexico, 1916.
Passed as part of the Preparedness Movement during and after the Villa expedition and before U.S. entry into World War I, the 1916 law named the state militias as the Army's primary reserve. The law also created a mechanism for mobilization of the National Guard for service outside the borders of the U.S. by stating that members of the militia would be discharged from the militia and drafted into the Volunteer Army (a term in the act which meant those men drafted into the service of the Army) in the event of an emergency, thus severing their tie to the states and the Constitutional restrictions placed on domestic usage of the state militia. Officers and men were also required to swear an oath to serve both state and federal authorities. In addition, the law made mandatory the use of the term "National Guard" to describe the organized militia, and provided funding to pay members for attending drill. The act also increased the number of weekend or weeknight drills from 24 to 48 per year, and increased the annual training period from five days to 15. Federal funding of all aspects of the National Guard expanded dramatically as a result of this legislation, with the federal government taking over all arming, equipping and training expenses associated with the Guard, sharing only administrative and armory costs with the states. Prior to 1916, the states in aggregate spent more on the militia than the federal government. Since 1916, federal expenditures have far outpaced those of the states.[118][119][120]
The 1916 Act also reorganized the Division of Militia Affairs within the Army as the Militia Bureau, removing it from the General Staff and elevating it to a position directly under the Secretary of War. It also authorized the two members of the National Guard to serve on active duty as assistants to the Chief of the Militia Bureau, the first National Guardsmen to be authorized to serve as members of the Army staff.[122][123][124]
369th Infantry, first New York regiment to parade on return home at end of World War I.
In the spring of 1917, the U.S. declared war on Germany and entered World War I, and the National Guard played a major role. Its units were federalized and organized into divisions by state, which made up 40% of American Expeditionary Forces combat strength. Three of the first five U.S. Army divisions in combat were National Guard divisions, and the division with the highest number of Medal of Honor recipients was the National Guard's 30th Division.[2] Six of the eight U.S. divisions rated "superior" or "excellent" by the German General Staff during the war were National Guard divisions.[132]
National Guard divisions in World War I included the: 26th; 27th; 28th; 29th; 30th; 31st; 32nd; 33rd; 34th; 35th; 36th; 37th; 38th; 39th; 40th; 41st; and 42nd. Most divisions initially came from one state or region, but the 42nd Division was made up of National Guard units not already assigned to other divisions, and included representation from 26 states and the District of Columbia.[133][134]
African American National Guardsmen participated in World War I as they had in America's other conflicts. Three of the four regiments which made up the 93rd Division were National Guardsmen, including New York's 15th Infantry, which was federalized as the 369th Infantry Regiment. The 369th fought as part of the French 16th Division, and the entire regiment received the Croix de Guerre, with 171 members receiving the Legion of Honor. In one of the most well known acts of heroism in the war, 369th soldiers Henry Johnson and Needham Roberts fought off a German patrol of at least 24 soldiers, for which Johnson received the Medal of Honor in 2015.[137]
Advocated by National Guard proponents including John McAuley Palmer,[138] the National Defense Act of 1920 mandated that the Chief of the National Guard Bureau would be a National Guard officer, and the first Guard officer to serve as Chief was George C. Rickards.[139] It also enabled National Guard officers to serve on the Army's general staff in positions other that at the Militia Bureau, reorganized the National Guard's divisions and subordinate commands, and provided federal funding for National Guard unit operating expenses.[138][140]
National Defense Act of 1933
The National Defense Act of 1933 provided that the National Guard is considered a component of the Army at all times. Beginning with this law, each National Guard member has two military statuses—a member of the National Guard of his or her state, or a member of the National Guard of the United States when ordered into active duty. This enhanced the 1916 Act's mobilization provisions, making it possible to deploy National Guard units and individual members directly for overseas service in the event of a war, without having to discharge and draft them first.[141][142]
The 1933 law also changed the name of the Militia Bureau to the National Guard Bureau.[143]
37th Infantry Division troops carry weapons and ammunition forward, 5 August 1943, New Georgia.
In August 1940, the National Guard was ordered to federal service for 12 months in anticipation of American entry into World War II. More than 300,000 National Guardsmen were called up as parts of divisions or in non-divisional units, immediately doubling the size of the active-duty U.S. Army. 18 Army divisions, 80 separate regiments, and 29 Army Air Corps squadrons were mobilized from National Guard organizations beginning in September 1940.[144] After the United States officially entered the war in December 1941, one entirely new division (the Americal) and parts of several other Army divisions were organized with National Guard units.[145][146]
North Dakota's 164th Infantry Regiment, sent to reinforce the U.S. Marines on Guadalcanal in October 1942, was the first U.S. Army regiment to fight on the offensive in World War II.[151] On New Guinea, the 32nd and 41st Infantry Divisions became the first Army divisions to engage and defeat the Japanese in late 1942 and early 1943.[152] In Europe, the 34th Infantry Division was one of the first two US infantry divisions to fight in the European Theater of Operations (ETO) when it landed in Algeria as part of Operation Torch.[153] The 29th Infantry Division of the Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and District of Columbia National Guards was one of two assault divisions on Omaha Beach in Normandy during the D-Day landings on June 6, 1944.[154][155]
Despite the efforts of Regular Army leaders to replace National Guard division commanders with Regular Army officers, National Guard Major GeneralsLeonard F. Wing and Robert S. Beightler remained in command of their divisions, the 43rd and 37th, and Beightler was the only National Guard general to command his division for the entire duration of the war.[157][158]
National Guard infantry divisions which participated in the war included the 26th, 27th, 28th, 29th, 30th, 31st, 32nd, 33rd, 34th, 35th, 36th, 37th, 38th, 40th, 41st, 43rd, 44th, and 45th.[159] National Guard regiments were also part of the Americal, 7th,[160]8th,[161]24th,[162] and 25th Infantry Divisions.[163]
As a result of the Air Force's creation, the Air National Guard was formed.[166][167] Under the control of the governors during peacetime, the Air Guard was organized along the same lines as the Army National Guard, as both a militia existing in each of the states, and as a federal reserve component of the US Air Force. The fielding of the Air National Guard also caused the creation of two new positions within the National Guard Bureau, the Director of the Army National Guard and Director of the Air National Guard, who each reported to the Chief of the National Guard Bureau.[168][169]
By the end of the war, approximately 700 Army National Guard units had been mobilized, as had thousands of individual volunteers and soldiers involuntarily called to active duty because they had critical skills. Approximately 139,000 Army Guardsmen served during this conflict.[172]
Post Korean War
In 1958 Army and Defense Department leaders decided to realign National Guard and Army Reserve divisions under the Pentomic structure.[173] A controversy arose when the regular Army attempted to reduce the number of planned National Guard divisions to 21, which was resolved when Secretary of Defense Neil H. McElroy decided on 27 for the Army National Guard.[174] By September 1959 the Army National Guard had reorganized into twenty-one infantry and six armored divisions.[175] Non-divisional regimental combat teams were replaced with separate combined arms brigades; Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Arizona organized the 29th, 92nd and 258th Infantry Brigades.[176]
In the 1962–63 Reorganization Objective Army Division reorganization, the 34th, 35th, 43rd, and 51st Infantry Divisions, multi-state National Guard formations, dropped out of the force.[177] They were replaced in part by the 67th (Nebraska and Iowa), 69th (Kansas and Missouri), 86th (Vermont and Connecticut), and 53rd (Florida and South Carolina) Infantry Brigades. Each brigade fielded five maneuver battalions or squadrons. The following year, to increase flexibility, the 53rd and 86th Infantry Brigades were converted to armor (53rd and 86th Armored Brigades), and the 67th Infantry Brigade was reorganized as mechanized infantry. The 53rd and 67th retained their five maneuver battalions, but the 86th lost one.[177]
Vietnam War
126th Supply & Service Company (Illinois), Vietnam.
During the Vietnam War the Administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson decided upon a draft to enhance active duty troop strength rather than calling on large numbers of the National Guard and Reserves.[178] As a result, membership in a reserve component, including the Army National Guard, became a way to avoid combat service in an unpopular war.[179][180] Amid accusations of favoritism in enlistment and "easy" service when compared to duty in Vietnam, the reputation of the Army National Guard declined even as enlistments increased.[181]
Despite the decision not to call up the National Guard in full force, some units were activated, and individual National Guard members volunteered to be mobilized. Among the Army National Guard units mobilized during the Vietnam War were Artillerybattalions from Kentucky and New Hampshire, and an Engineercompany from Vermont. Company D (Long Range Patrol) 151st Infantry Regiment, Indiana Army National Guard, was the only National Guard Infantry unit to serve in Vietnam.[182] During the Vietnam War, 76 Army National Guard units were called up to active duty, it is estimated that 13,000 Army National Guard members were mobilized during this time.[183][184]
Several Army National Guard units were deployed to Southeast Asia and served in Vietnam, including:[184][185]
During the Vietnam War era the National Guard maintained its role as an organization available to governors for disaster relief.[192][193]
During the war, the Department of Defense continued to scrutinize the reserve forces. It questioned the number of divisions and brigades, as well as the redundancy of maintaining two reserve components, the National Guard and the Army Reserve. In 1967, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara decided that 15 combat divisions was too many; he cut the number to eight (one mechanized infantry, two armored, and five infantry), but increased the number of brigades from seven to 18 (one airborne, one armored, two mechanized infantry, and 14 infantry). The loss of the divisions did not set well with the states; their objections included an inadequate mix of maneuver units for the divisions that remained, and an end to the practice of rotating divisional commands among the states that supported them. Under McNamara's proposal, the remaining division commanders were to be members of the National Guard of the state which was home to the division headquarters. The McNamara plan also included no reduction in total Army National Guard end strength, which convinced the states to accept it.[194] To comply with the McNamara plan, the states reorganized their forces between 1 December 1967, and 1 May 1968.[195]
Post Vietnam War
Creighton Abrams proposed the "Abrams Doctrine".
The Army's experience with not having fully used the National Guard during the Vietnam War led to the creation of the 1973 Total Force Policy. With the Vietnam War draft having been ended in favor of an all volunteer military, the Total Force Policy required all active and reserve military organizations to be treated as a single integrated force. Following the experience of fighting in Vietnam without widespread popular support, the TFP was designed to involve the American public in military actions by mobilizing the National Guard from its thousands of locations throughout the United States.[196]
In 1974 the "Abrams Doctrine" further expanded the TFP. Creighton Abrams, who had become commander of Military Assistance Command, Vietnam in 1968, became Chief of Staff of the United States Army in 1972. Having seen the effects of President Johnson's decision to use the draft rather than calling on the National Guard and Reserve in large numbers, Abrams stated that the U.S. should never again go to war without calling up the Guard and Reserve.[197]
Late 20th century
Howitzer Section Number 1, Battery A, 2nd Battalion, 142nd Field Artillery, Arkansas Army National Guard, Operation Desert Storm, January 1991.
For much of the final decades of the twentieth century, National Guard personnel typically served "one weekend a month, two weeks a year", with a portion working for the Guard in a full-time capacity as members of the Active Guard Reserve (AGR) or as dual status federal technicians. (Dual status technicians are traditional National Guard members who are federal civilian employees during the regular work week, and work in uniform.)
As part of the Reagan Era defense build up, the National Guard began to transform from a strategic reserve to an operational one. This included modernization of equipment and weapons, more intensive training during drill and annual training periods, and increased overseas training opportunities.[198][199][200][201]
In the late 1980s several state governors unsuccessfully challenged the authority of the president to federalize the National Guard in their states without their consent. GovernorRudy Perpich and others objected to the National Guard being deployed to Central America during the political debate over whether the United States should be involved in the attempted overthrow of the Sandanista government of Nicaragua.[202][203]
In the first major test of the Total Force Policy, several Army National Guard units were activated for the 1991 Gulf War, mostly combat support and combat service support organizations. Though there was controversy over the Army's decision not to deploy the "roundout brigades" of three divisions (the 48th Infantry Brigade, 155th Armored Brigade, and 256th Infantry Brigade) once they completed their mobilization training,[204] other Army National Guard units were activated, served in Southwest Asia, and performed well. Approximately 60,000 Army Guard soldiers were activated for the Gulf War, including the 142nd Field Artillery Brigade and 196th Field Artillery Brigade.[205]
The National Guard also continued to carry out its role to aid in civil disturbance control, including responding to the 1992 Los Angeles riots.[206] In addition, it took on an increased role in U.S. illegal drug interdiction efforts.[207] In 1993, the National Guard established the Multijurisdictional Counterdrug Task Force Training program to help train federal, state, and local law enforcement officials in counterdrug efforts. Since its creation, the MCTFT has trainined more than one million registered students through live and distance learning courses.[208]
The National Guard also maintained its role as a state force available to respond to natural disasters, as with 1992's Hurricane Andrew.[209]
Soldiers from 214th Military Police (MP) Company, Alabama Army National Guard, march towards Tal Kayf Police Station in Tal Kayf district of Mosul, Iraq, May 3, 2011.
In addition to deployments for the Global War on Terrorism, National Guard members continued in their roles of disaster relief and providing support to law enforcement when required. These responses included Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and with additional troops sent in 2006,[217][218][219]Hurricane Irene in 2011,[220] and Hurricane Sandy[221] and Hurricane Isaac[222] in 2012.
In January, 2013 President Barack Obama signed into law House Bill 1339, which designated Salem, Massachusetts as the official birthplace of the National Guard.[223] The Army National Guard continued to carry out a variety of missions in 2014, both in the United States and overseas, including activities to combat an Ebola epidemic in Africa in late 2014.[224] In 2015 the Army National Guard conducted a variety of activities, including the deployment of soldiers to the Guantanamo Bay detention camp for security operations,[225] and soldiers serving in Afghanistan as part of Operation Resolute Support.[226]
Members of the Army National Guard in Texas, Louisiana, and Oklahoma responded in late May and early June to spring floods caused by higher than normal rainfall.[229][230] Also in 2015, Army National Guard members responded to wildfires in several states, including North Dakota,[231]Minnesota,[232] and Alaska,[233]
Related Research Articles
The Army National Guard (ARNG) is an organized militia force and a federal military reserve force of the United States Army. It is simultaneously part of two different organizations: the Militia of the United States, as well as the federal ARNG, as part of the National Guard as a whole. It is divided into subordinate units stationed in each state or insular area, responsible to their respective governors or other head-of-government.
The Regular Army of the United States succeeded the Continental Army as the country's permanent, professional land-based military force. In modern times, the professional core of the United States Army continues to be called the Regular Army. From the time of the American Revolution until after the Spanish–American War, state militias and volunteer regiments organized by the states supported the smaller Regular Army of the United States. These volunteer regiments came to be called United States Volunteers (USV) in contrast to the Regular United States Army (USA). During the American Civil War, about 97 percent of the Union Army was United States Volunteers.
The militia of the United States, as defined by the U.S. Congress, has changed over time. During colonial America, all able-bodied men of a certain age range were members of the militia, depending on each colony's rule. Individual towns formed local independent militias for their own defense. The year before the U.S. Constitution was ratified, The Federalist Papers detailed the Founding Fathers' paramount vision of the militia in 1787. The new Constitution empowered Congress to "organize, arm, and discipline" this national military force, leaving significant control in the hands of each state government.
The Massachusetts National Guard is the National Guard component for the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Founded as the Massachusetts Bay Colonial Militia on December 13, 1636, it contains the oldest units in the United States Army. What is today's Massachusetts National Guard evolved through many different forms. Originally founded as a defensive militia for Puritan colonists in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the militia evolved into a highly organized and armed fighting force. The Massachusetts militia served as a central organ of the New England revolutionary fighting force during the early American Revolution and a major component in the Continental Army under George Washington.
The Connecticut Military Department is a state agency of the government of Connecticut. Its primary components are the Connecticut Army National Guard, the Connecticut Air National Guard, and four companies of the state militia. The Military Department of the State of Connecticut traces its origins to May 11, 1637, when the "General Courts" established a military arm of the provincial government. In 1939, the State's Military Department was established to consolidate the offices of Adjutant General, Quartermaster General, Armory Board, and Armory Board Inspector.
The Indiana National Guard (INNG) is a component of the United States Armed Forces, the United States National Guard and the Military Department of Indiana (MDI). It consists of the Indiana Army National Guard, the Indiana Air National Guard, and the Adjutant General's Office.
The Minnesota National Guard is a state-based military force of more than 13,000 soldiers and airmen, serving in 61 communities across the state. Operated in the U.S. state of Minnesota, it is a reserve component of the National Guard.
The New Mexico National Guard is the militia of the U.S. state of New Mexico. Comprising the New Mexico Army National Guard and the New Mexico Air National Guard, it is part of the National Guard of the United States, a reserve force under both state and federal jurisdiction.
The Virginia National Guard is part of the National Guard of the United States, a dual federal-state military reserve force. It consists of the Virginia Army National Guard and Virginia Air National Guard.. The National Guard may be called into federal service in response to a call by the President of the United States in accordance with Title 10 of the United States Code.
The West Virginia National Guard is a part of the West Virginia Department of Military Affairs and Public Safety. It comprises the West Virginia Army National Guard and the West Virginia Air National Guard. Unlike some states, West Virginia does not maintain a state defense force, nor is there a naval component to the state's military forces.
The New York Army National Guard is a component of the New York National Guard and the Army National Guard. Nationwide, the Army National Guard comprises approximately one half of the United States Army's available combat forces and approximately one third of its support organization. National coordination of various state National Guard units are maintained through the National Guard Bureau.
The Florida Army National Guard is Florida's component of the United States Army and the United States National Guard. In the United States, the Army National Guard comprises approximately one half of the federal army's available combat forces and approximately one third of its support organization. Federal coordination of various state National Guard units are maintained through the National Guard Bureau. The Florida Army National Guard was composed of approximately 10,000 soldiers. The main state training grounds is Camp Blanding.
The Pennsylvania Army National Guard, abbreviated PAARNG, is part of the United States Army National Guard and is based in the U.S. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Together with the Pennsylvania Air National Guard, it is directed by the Pennsylvania Department of Military and Veterans Affairs. The PAARNG maintains 124 armories and is present in 87 communities across the Commonwealth.
The California Army National Guard is one of three components of the California National Guard, a reserve of the United States Army, and part of the National Guard of the United States. The California Army National Guard is composed of 18,450 soldiers. Nationwide, the Army National Guard comprises approximately one half of the US Army's available combat forces and approximately one third of its support organization. National coordination of various state National Guard units are maintained through the National Guard Bureau.
The Illinois Army National Guard is a component of the United States Army and the United States National Guard. With the Illinois Air National Guard it forms the Illinois National Guard. National coordination of various state National Guard units are maintained through the National Guard Bureau. The Illinois Army National Guard is composed of approximately 10,000 soldiers.
The Ohio Army National Guard is a part of the Ohio National Guard and the Army National Guard of the United States Army. It is also a component of the organized militia of the state of Ohio, which also includes the Ohio Naval Militia, the Ohio Military Reserve and the Ohio Air National Guard. The Ohio Army National Guard consists of a variety of combat, combat support, and combat service support units. As of September 2010, its end strength exceeded 11,400 soldiers. Its headquarters is the Beightler Armory in Columbus, Ohio. Many units conduct Annual Training at Camp Grayling, Michigan.
The Iowa Army National Guard is a state agency of the State of Iowa, with significant funding from the Federal Government of the United States; and a reserve component of the United States Army. It has dual Federal and State missions. It is empowered to function under control of the Governor, as a State asset in times of emergency or natural disaster, or if needed to carry out limited actions during non-emergency situations to include full scale Enforcement of martial law, when local law enforcement officials can no longer maintain civil control. The National Guard may also be called into federal service in response to a call by the President or Congress.
The Massachusetts State Defense Force (MSDF) is the currently inactive state defense force of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. It was inactivated in 2016 by Governor Charlie Baker. The purpose of the Massachusetts State Defense Force, when active, is to augment the Massachusetts National Guard during emergencies in the state, especially when some or all of the National Guard was deployed. The MSDF is an all-volunteer militia which reported to the State Adjutant General and was under the command of the Governor of Massachusetts. Members met for drills one weekend per month unless activated by the Governor during an emergency. The MSDF was headquartered at Milford, Massachusetts, in the same building as the Massachusetts National Guard. The director of the MSDF was appointed by the Adjutant General of Massachusetts (TAGMA). The Massachusetts State Defense Force is authorized by both the Constitution of Massachusetts and chapter 33 § 10 of the Massachusetts General Laws.
The 48th Infantry Brigade Combat Team is a modular infantry brigade of the Georgia Army National Guard. One of the oldest units in U.S. Army history, the lineage of the 48th Infantry Brigade can be traced back to 1825. It is one of few units in the US military that also saw service as a unit of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War. Today, the 48th IBCT is part of the U.S. Army's "Associated Units" program where it is aligned under the 3rd Infantry Division, a combined arms combat maneuver unit of the Regular Army.
The Rhode Island Army National Guard (RIARNG) is the land force militia for the U.S. state of Rhode Island. It operates under Title 10 and Title 32 of the United States Code and operates under the command of the state governor while not in federal service. National Guard units may function under arms in a state status, therefore they may be called up for active duty by the governor to help respond to domestic emergencies and disasters, such as those caused by hurricanes, floods, or civil unrest.
↑ Joshua E. Kastenberg, The Limits of Executive Power in Crisis in the Early Republic: Martin v. Mott—An Old Gray Mare—Reexamined Through Its Own History, 82 Louisiana Law Review 162 (2021)
↑ "Defense Appropriation for 1959". CQ Press. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly. 1958. Guard Reduction Dropped: Army Chief of Staff Gen. Maxwell D. Taylor announced Sept. 30 that efforts to reduce the manpower of the Army National Guard had been abandoned. Taylor said all 27 divisions would be continued in existence, each with five battle groups. Taylor said President Eisenhower and Secretary of Defense Neil H. McElroy had approved plans setting guard strength at 400,000 men and reorganizing the 27 divisions on a "pentomic basis" similar to that of the regular Army.
↑ DA, Why Merge (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1965); Ltr, TAG to CinC, USAREUR, and other addresses, 14 June 67, sub: Reserve Component Reorganization, AGAM-P (M) (13 June 67) ORC-OPT-OP, Ltr, TAG to CinC, USAREUR, and other addresses, 20 July 67, same subject, AGAM-P (M) (20 July 67) ORC-OPT-OP, and News Release, 27 November 67, Army Reserve Components Will Commence Reorganization, all Army Reserve file, DAMHHSO; "The President Reports to the 89th General Conference," National Guardsman, 21 (Oct 1967): inside front cover and pp. 36–39; "Division Command Rotation Plan Set Aside," National Guardsman, 22 (Mar 1968): 16; James F. Cantwell, "A Salute to the Lost' Divisions," National Guardsman, 22 (Feb 1968):
↑ Wilson, John B., Maneuver and Firepower, the Evolution of Divisions and Separate Brigades, Army Lineage Series, Center of Military History, United States Army, Washington, D. C., 1998, CMH Pub 60-14, Chart 30, p.340. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 4 April 2008. Retrieved 2016-04-14.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
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