Mutual fund

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A mutual fund is an investment fund that pools money from many investors to purchase securities. The term is typically used in the United States, Canada, and India, while similar structures across the globe include the SICAV in Europe ('investment company with variable capital'), and the open-ended investment company (OEIC) in the UK.

Contents

Mutual funds are often classified by their principal investments: money market funds, bond or fixed income funds, stock or equity funds, or hybrid funds. [1] Funds may also be categorized as index funds, which are passively managed funds that track the performance of an index, such as a stock market index or bond market index, or actively managed funds, which seek to outperform stock market indices but generally charge higher fees. The primary structures of mutual funds are open-end funds, closed-end funds, and unit investment trusts. Over long durations, passively managed funds consistently outperform actively managed funds. [2] [3] [4]

Open-end funds are purchased from or sold to the issuer at the net asset value of each share as of the close of the trading day in which the order was placed, as long as the order was placed within a specified period before the close of trading. They can be traded directly with the issuer. [5]

Mutual funds have advantages and disadvantages compared to direct investing in individual securities. The advantages of mutual funds include economies of scale, diversification, liquidity, and professional management. [6] As with other types of investment, investing in mutual funds involves various fees and expenses.

Mutual funds are regulated by governmental bodies and are required to publish information including performance, comparisons of performance to benchmarks, fees charged, and securities held. A single mutual fund may have several share classes, for which larger investors pay lower fees.

Hedge funds and exchange-traded funds are not typically referred to as mutual funds, and each is targeted at different investors, with hedge funds being available only to high-net-worth individuals. [7]

Market size

At the end of 2020, open-end mutual fund assets worldwide were $63.1 trillion. [8] The countries with the largest mutual fund industries are:

  1. United States: $23.9 trillion
  2. Australia: $5.3 trillion
  3. Ireland: $3.4 trillion
  4. Germany: $2.5 trillion
  5. Luxembourg: $2.2 trillion
  6. France: $2.2 trillion
  7. Japan: $2.1 trillion
  8. Canada: $1.9 trillion
  9. United Kingdom: $1.9 trillion
  10. China: $1.4 trillion

At the end of 2019, 23% of household financial assets were invested in mutual funds. Mutual funds accounted for approximately 50% of the assets in individual retirement accounts, 401(k)s and other similar retirement plans. [8]

Luxembourg and Ireland are the primary jurisdictions for the registration of UCITS funds. These funds may be sold throughout the European Union and in other countries that have adopted mutual recognition regimes.

History

Early history

The first modern investment funds, the precursor of mutual funds, were established in the Dutch Republic. In response to the financial crisis of 1772–1773, Amsterdam-based businessman Abraham (or Adriaan) van Ketwich formed a trust named Eendragt Maakt Magt ("unity creates strength"). His aim was to provide small investors with an opportunity to diversify. [9] [10]

The first investment trust in the UK, the Scottish American Investment Trust formed in 1873, is considered the "most obvious progenitor" to the mutual fund, according to Diana B. Henriques. [11]

One of the earliest investment companies in the U.S. similar to a modern mutual fund was the Boston Personal Property Trust that was founded in 1893; however, its original intent was as a workaround to Massachusetts law restricting corporate real estate holdings rather than investing. [12] Early U.S. funds were generally closed-end funds with a fixed number of shares that often traded at prices above the portfolio net asset value. [13] The first open-end mutual fund with redeemable shares was established on March 21, 1924, as the Massachusetts Investors Trust, which is still in existence today and managed by MFS Investment Management. [14] [15]

In the U.S., there were nearly six times as many closed-end funds as mutual funds in 1929. [16]

After the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the United States Congress passed a series of acts regulating the securities markets in general and mutual funds in particular.

These new regulations encouraged the development of open-end mutual funds (as opposed to closed-end funds). [17]

In 1936, U.S. mutual fund industry was nearly half as large as closed-end investment trusts. But mutual funds had grown to twice as large as closed-end funds by 1947; growth would accelerate to ten times as much by 1959. In terms of dollar amounts, mutual funds in the U.S. totaled $2 billion in value in 1950 and about $17 billion in 1960. [18] The introduction of money market funds in the high-interest rate environment of the late 1970s boosted industry growth dramatically.

The first retail index funds appeared in the early 1970s, aiming to capture average market returns rather than doing detailed company-by-company analysis as earlier funds had done. Rex Sinquefield offered the first S&P 500 index fund to the general public starting in 1973, while employed at American National Bank of Chicago. [19] [20] Sinquefield's fund had $12 billion in assets after its first seven years. [21] John "Mac" McQuown also began an index fund in 1973, though it was part of a large pension fund managed by Wells Fargo and not open to the general public. [19] Batterymarch Financial, a small Boston firm then employing Jeremy Grantham, also offered index funds beginning in 1973 but it was such a revolutionary concept they did not have paying customers for over a year. [19] John Bogle was another early pioneer of index funds with the First Index Investment Trust, formed in 1976 by The Vanguard Group; it is now called the "Vanguard 500 Index Fund" and is one of the largest mutual funds. [19]

Beginning the 1980s, the mutual fund industry began a period of growth. [8] According to Robert Pozen and Theresa Hamacher, growth was the result of three factors:

  1. A bull market for both stocks and bonds,
  2. New product introductions (including funds based on municipal bonds, various industry sectors, international funds, and target date funds) and
  3. Wider distribution of fund shares. Among the new distribution channels were retirement plans. Mutual funds are now the a preferred investment option in certain types of retirement plans, specifically in 401(k), other defined contribution plans and in individual retirement accounts (IRAs), all of which surged in popularity in the 1980s. [22]

The 2003 mutual fund scandal involved unequal treatment of fund shareholders whereby some fund management companies allowed favored investors to engage in prohibited late trading or market timing. The scandal was uncovered by former New York Attorney General Eliot Spitzer and led to an increase in regulation.

In a 2007 study about German mutual funds, Johannes Gomolka and Ralf Jasny found statistical evidence of illegal time zone arbitrage in trading of German mutual funds. [23] Though reported to regulators, BaFin never commented on these results.

Features

Like other types of investment funds, mutual funds have advantages and disadvantages compared to alternative structures or investing directly in individual securities. According to Robert Pozen and Theresa Hamacher, these are:

Advantages

Disadvantages

Mutual funds have disadvantages as well, which include:

Regulation and operation

United States

In the United States, the principal laws governing mutual funds are:

Mutual funds are overseen by a board of directors if organized as a corporation, or by a board of trustees, if organized as a trust. The Board must ensure that the fund is managed in the interests of the fund's investors. The board hires the fund manager and other service providers to the fund.

The sponsor or fund management company often referred to as the fund manager, trades (buys and sells) the fund's investments in accordance with the fund's investment objective. Funds that are managed by the same company under the same brand are known as a fund family or fund complex. A fund manager must be a registered investment adviser.

European Union

In the European Union, funds are governed by laws and regulations established by their home country. However, the European Union has established a mutual recognition regime that allows funds regulated in one country to be sold in all other countries in the European Union, if they comply with certain requirements. The directive establishing this regime is the Undertakings for Collective Investment in Transferable Securities Directive 2009, and funds that comply with its requirements are known as UCITS funds.

Canada

Regulation of mutual funds in Canada is primarily governed by National Instrument 81-102 "Mutual Funds", which is implemented separately in each province or territory. The Canadian Securities Administrator works to harmonize regulation across Canada. [27]

Hong Kong

In the Hong Kong market mutual funds are regulated by two authorities:

Taiwan

In Taiwan, mutual funds are regulated by the Financial Supervisory Commission (FSC). [30]

India

Mutual funds in India are regulated by Securities and Exchange Board of India, the regulator of the securities and commodity market owned by the Government of India, [31] under the SEBI (Mutual Funds) regulations of 1996. The functional aspect of Mutual Funds industry comes under the purview of AMFI, a trade association of all fund houses. Formed in August 1995, the body undertook the Mutual Funds Sahi hai campaign in March 2017 for promoting investor awareness on mutual funds in India. [32]

Fund structures

There are three primary structures of mutual funds: open-end funds, unit investment trusts, and closed-end funds. Exchange-traded funds (ETFs) are open-end funds or unit investment trusts that trade on an exchange.

Open-end funds

Open-end mutual funds must be willing to buy back ("redeem") their shares from their investors at the net asset value (NAV) computed that day based upon the prices of the securities owned by the fund. In the United States, open-end funds must be willing to buy back shares at the end of every business day. In other jurisdictions, open-end funds may only be required to buy back shares at longer intervals. For example, UCITS funds in Europe are only required to accept redemptions twice each month (though most UCITS accept redemptions daily).

Most open-end funds also sell shares to the public every business day; these shares are priced at NAV.

Open-end funds are often referred to simply as "mutual funds".

In the United States at the end of 2019, there were 7,945 open-end mutual funds with combined assets of $21.3 trillion, accounting for 83% of the U.S. industry. [8]

Unit investment trusts

Unit investment trusts (UITs) are issued to the public only once when they are created. UITs generally have a limited life span, established at creation. Investors can redeem shares directly with the fund at any time (similar to an open-end fund) or wait to redeem them upon the trust's termination. Less commonly, they can sell their shares in the open market.

Unlike other types of mutual funds, unit investment trusts do not have a professional investment manager. Their portfolio of securities is established at the creation of the UIT.

In the United States, at the end of 2019, there were 4,571 UITs with combined assets of less than $0.1 trillion. [8]

Closed-end funds

Closed-end funds generally issue shares to the public only once, when they are created through an initial public offering. Their shares are then publicly listed. Investors who want to sell their shares must sell their shares to another investor in the market; they cannot sell their shares back to the fund. The price that investors receive for their shares may be significantly different from NAV; it may be at a "premium" to NAV (i.e., higher than NAV) or, more commonly, at a "discount" to NAV (i.e., lower than NAV).

In the United States, at the end of 2019, there were 500 closed-end mutual funds with combined assets of $0.28 trillion. [8]

Classification of funds by types of underlying investments

Mutual funds may be classified by their principal investments, as described in the prospectus and investment objective. The four main categories of funds are money market funds, bond or fixed-income funds, stock or equity funds, and hybrid funds. Within these categories, funds may be sub-classified by investment objective, investment approach, or specific focus.

The types of securities that a particular fund may invest in are set forth in the fund's prospectus, a legal document that describes the fund's investment objective, investment approach and permitted investments. The investment objective describes the type of income that the fund seeks. For example, a capital appreciation fund generally looks to earn most of its returns from increases in the prices of the securities it holds, rather than from dividend or interest income. The investment approach describes the criteria that the fund manager uses to select investments for the fund.

Bond, stock, and hybrid funds may be classified as either index (or passively-managed) funds or actively managed funds.

Alternative investments which incorporate advanced techniques such as hedging known as "liquid alternatives".

Money market funds

Money market funds invest in money market instruments, which are fixed income securities with a very short time to maturity and high credit quality. Investors often use money market funds as a substitute for bank savings accounts, though money market funds are not insured by the government, unlike bank savings accounts.

In the United States, money market funds sold to retail investors and those investing in government securities may maintain a stable net asset value of $1 per share, when they comply with certain conditions. Money market funds sold to institutional investors that invest in non-government securities must compute a net asset value based on the value of the securities held in the funds.

In the United States, at the end of 2019, assets in money market funds were $3.6 trillion, representing 14% of the industry. [8]

Bond funds

Bond funds invest in fixed income or debt securities. Bond funds can be sub-classified according to:

In the United States, at the end of 2019, assets in bond funds (of all types) were $5.7 trillion, representing 22% of the industry. [8]

Stock funds

Stock or equity funds invest in common stocks. Stock funds may focus on a particular area of the stock market, such as

In the United States, at the end of 2019, assets in stock funds (of all types) were $15.0 trillion, representing 58% of the industry. [8]

Funds which invest in a relatively small number of stocks are known as "focus funds".

Hybrid funds

Hybrid funds invest in both bonds and stocks or in convertible securities. Balanced funds, asset allocation funds, convertible bond funds, [33] target date or target-risk funds, and lifecycle or lifestyle funds are all types of hybrid funds. The performance of hybrid funds can be explained by a combination of stock factors (e.g., Fama–French three-factor model), bond factors (e.g., excess returns of a Government bond index), option factors (e.g., implied stock-market volatility), and fund factors (e.g., the net supply of convertible bonds). [34]

Hybrid funds may be structured as fund of funds, meaning that they invest by buying shares in other mutual funds that invest in securities. Many funds of funds invest in affiliated funds (meaning mutual funds managed by the same fund sponsor), although some invest in unaffiliated funds (i.e., managed by other fund sponsors) or some combination of the two.

In the United States, at the end of 2019, assets in hybrid funds were $1.6 trillion, representing 6% of the industry. [8]

Other funds

Funds may invest in commodities or other investments.

Expenses

Investors in a mutual fund pay the fund's expenses. Some of these expenses reduce the value of an investor's account; others are paid by the fund and reduce net asset value.

These expenses fall into five categories:

Management fee

The management fee is paid by the fund to the management company or sponsor that organizes the fund, provides the portfolio management or investment advisory services, and normally lends its brand name to the fund. The fund manager may also provide other administrative services. The management fee often has breakpoints, which means that it declines in percentage as the invested amount (in either the specific fund or in the fund family as a whole) increases. The fund's board reviews the management fee annually. Fund shareholders must vote on any proposed increase, but the fund manager or sponsor can agree to waive some or all of the management fees in order to lower the fund's expense ratio.

Index funds generally charge a lower management fee than actively-managed funds.

Distribution charges

When these expenses are charged separately, distribution charges pay for marketing, distribution of the fund's shares, and services to investors. There are three types of distribution charges.

Distribution charges generally vary for each share class.

Securities transaction fees incurred by the fund

A mutual fund pays expenses related to buying or selling the securities in its portfolio. These expenses may include brokerage commissions. These costs are normally positively correlated with turnover.

Shareholder transaction fees

Shareholders may be required to pay fees for certain transactions, such as buying or selling shares of the fund. A fund may charge a fee for maintaining an individual retirement account for an investor.

Some funds charge redemption fees when an investor sells fund shares shortly after buying them (usually defined as within 30, 60, or 90 days of purchase). Redemption fees are computed as a percentage of the sale amount. Shareholder transaction fees are not part of the expense ratio.

Fund services charges

A mutual fund may pay for other services including:

The fund manager or sponsor may agree to subsidize some of these charges.

Expense ratio

The expense ratio equals recurring fees and expenses charged to the fund during the year divided by average net assets. The management fee and fund services charges are ordinarily included in the expense ratio. Front-end and back-end loads, securities transaction fees, and shareholder transaction fees are normally excluded.

To facilitate comparisons of expenses, regulators generally require that funds use the same formula to compute the expense ratio and publish the results.

No-load fund

In the United States, a fund that calls itself "no-load" cannot charge a front-end load or back-end load under any circumstances and cannot charge a distribution and services fee greater than 0.25% of fund assets.

Controversy regarding fees and expenses

Critics of the fund industry argue that the expenses for many mutual funds are too high. They believe that the market for mutual funds is not as competitive as it should be and that there are often many hidden fees so that it can be difficult for investors to understand and minimize the fees that they pay. They argue that the most effective way for investors to raise the returns they earn from mutual funds is to invest in funds with low expense ratios.

Fund managers counter that fees are determined by a highly competitive market and, therefore, reflect the value that investors attribute to the service provided. They also note that fees are clearly disclosed.

Definitions of key terms

Average annual total return

Mutual funds in the United States are required to report the average annual compounded rates of return for one-, five-and-ten year-periods using the following formula: [35]

P × (1+T)n = ERV

Where:

P = a hypothetical initial payment of $1,000
T = average annual total return (as a percentage divided by 100, e.g., 0.05 for a 5% return)
n = number of years
ERV = ending redeemable value of a hypothetical $1,000 payment made at the beginning of the one-, five-, or ten-year periods at the end of those periods (or fractional portion).

Net asset value

A fund's net asset value (NAV) equals the current market value of a fund's holdings minus the fund's liabilities (this figure may also be referred to as the fund's "net assets"). It is usually expressed as a per-share amount, computed by dividing net assets by the number of fund shares outstanding. Funds must compute their net asset value according to the rules set forth in their prospectuses. Most compute their NAV at the end of each business day.

Valuing the securities held in a fund's portfolio is often the most difficult part of calculating net asset value. The fund's board typically oversees security valuation.

Share classes

A single mutual fund may give investors a choice of different combinations of front-end loads, back-end loads and distribution and services fee, by offering several different types of shares, known as share classes. All of them invest in the same portfolio of securities, but each has different expenses and, therefore, different net asset values and different performance results. Some of these share classes may be available only to certain types of investors.

Typical share classes for funds sold through brokers or other intermediaries in the United States are:

No-load funds in the United States often have two classes of shares:

Neither class of shares typically charges a front-end or back-end load.

Portfolio turnover

Portfolio turnover is a measure of the volume of a fund's securities trading. It is expressed as a percentage of the average market value of the portfolio's long-term securities. Turnover is the lesser of a fund's purchases or sales during a given year divided by average long-term securities market value for the same period. If the period is less than a year, turnover is generally annualized.

See also

Related Research Articles

A hedge fund is a pooled investment fund that holds liquid assets and that makes use of complex trading and risk management techniques to improve investment performance and insulate returns from market risk. Among these portfolio techniques are short selling and the use of leverage and derivative instruments. In the United States, financial regulations require that hedge funds be marketed only to institutional investors and high-net-worth individuals.

Passive management is an investing strategy that tracks a market-weighted index or portfolio. Passive management is most common on the equity market, where index funds track a stock market index, but it is becoming more common in other investment types, including bonds, commodities and hedge funds.

An index fund is a mutual fund or exchange-traded fund (ETF) designed to follow certain preset rules so that it can replicate the performance ("track") of a specified basket of underlying investments. While index providers often emphasize that they are for-profit organizations, index providers have the ability to act as "reluctant regulators" when determining which companies are suitable for an index. Those rules may include tracking prominent indices like the S&P 500 or the Dow Jones Industrial Average or implementation rules, such as tax-management, tracking error minimization, large block trading or patient/flexible trading strategies that allow for greater tracking error but lower market impact costs. Index funds may also have rules that screen for social and sustainable criteria.

Open-end fund is a collective investment scheme that can issue and redeem shares at any time. An investor will generally purchase shares in the fund directly from the fund itself, rather than from the existing shareholders. The term contrasts with a closed-end fund, which typically issues at the outset all the shares that it will issue, with such shares usually thereafter being tradable among investors.

A closed-end fund, also known as a closed-end mutual fund, is an investment vehicle fund that raises capital by issuing a fixed number of shares at its inception, and then invests that capital in financial assets such as stocks and bonds. After inception it is closed to new capital, although fund managers sometimes employ leverage. Investors can buy and sell the existing shares in secondary markets.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fidelity Investments</span> American multinational financial services corporation

Fidelity Investments, formerly known as Fidelity Management & Research (FMR), is an American multinational financial services corporation based in Boston, Massachusetts. Established in 1946, the company is one of the largest asset managers in the world, with $5.8 trillion in assets under management, and $15.0 trillion in assets under administration, as of September 2024, Fidelity Investments operates a brokerage firm, manages a large family of mutual funds, provides fund distribution and investment advice, retirement services, index funds, wealth management, securities execution and clearance, asset custody, and life insurance.

An exchange-traded fund (ETF) is a type of investment fund that is also an exchange-traded product, i.e., it is traded on stock exchanges. ETFs own financial assets such as stocks, bonds, currencies, debts, futures contracts, and/or commodities such as gold bars. Many ETFs provide some level of diversification compared to owning an individual stock.

A money market fund is an open-end mutual fund that invests in short-term debt securities such as US Treasury bills and commercial paper. Money market funds are managed with the goal of maintaining a highly stable asset value through liquid investments, while paying income to investors in the form of dividends. Although they are not insured against loss, actual losses have been quite rare in practice.

Net asset value (NAV) is the value of an entity's assets minus the value of its liabilities, often in relation to open-end, mutual funds, hedge funds, and venture capital funds. Shares of such funds registered with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission are usually bought and redeemed at their net asset value. It is also a key figure with regard to hedge funds and venture capital funds when calculating the value of the underlying investments in these funds by investors. This may also be the same as the book value or the equity value of a business. Net asset value may represent the value of the total equity, or it may be divided by the number of shares outstanding held by investors, thereby representing the net asset value per share.

Investment management is the professional asset management of various securities, including shareholdings, bonds, and other assets, such as real estate, to meet specified investment goals for the benefit of investors. Investors may be institutions, such as insurance companies, pension funds, corporations, charities, educational establishments, or private investors, either directly via investment contracts/mandates or via collective investment schemes like mutual funds, exchange-traded funds, or Real estate investment trusts.

Active management is an approach to investing. In an actively managed portfolio of investments, the investor selects the investments that make up the portfolio. Active management is often compared to passive management or index investing.

A "fund of funds" (FOF) is an investment strategy of holding a portfolio of other investment funds rather than investing directly in stocks, bonds or other securities. This type of investing is often referred to as multi-manager investment. A fund of funds may be "fettered", meaning that it invests only in funds managed by the same investment company, or "unfettered", meaning that it can invest in external funds run by other managers.

A unit trust is a form of collective investment constituted under a trust deed. A unit trust pools investors' money into a single fund, which is managed by a fund manager. Unit trusts offer access to a wide range of investments, and depending on the trust, it may invest in securities such as shares, bonds, gilts, and also properties, mortgage and cash equivalents. Those investing in the trust own "units", whose price is called the "net asset value" (NAV). The number of these units is not fixed and when more is invested in a unit trust, more units are created.

In finance, assets under management (AUM), sometimes called fund under management, refers to the total market value of all financial assets that a financial institution—such as a mutual fund, venture capital firm, or depository institution—or a decentralized network protocol manages and invests, typically on behalf of its clients. Funds may be managed for clients, platform users, or solely for themselves, such as in the case of a financial institution which has mutual funds or holds its own venture capital. The definition and formula for calculating AUM may differ from one entity to another.

A stock fund, or equity fund, is a fund that invests in stocks, also called equity securities. Stock funds can be contrasted with bond funds and money funds. Fund assets are typically mainly in stock, with some amount of cash, which is generally quite small, as opposed to bonds, notes, or other securities. This may be a mutual fund or exchange-traded fund. The objective of an equity fund is long-term growth through capital gains, although historically dividends have also been an important source of total return. Specific equity funds may focus on a certain sector of the market or may be geared toward a certain level of risk.

Mutual fund fees and expenses are charges that may be incurred by investors who hold mutual funds. Operating a mutual fund involves costs, including shareholder transaction costs, investment advisory fees, and marketing and distribution expenses. Funds pass along these costs to investors in several ways.

The Iman Fund is an American faith based mutual fund that invests in Shariah compliant companies. The fund's 2000 inception catered to the needs of Muslim investors, who not only want to have a financially rewarding investment, but a Shariah compatible one as well.

An exchange-traded note (ETN) is a senior, unsecured, unsubordinated debt security issued by an underwriting bank or by a special-purpose entity. Similar to other debt securities, ETNs may have a maturity date and are backed by the credit of the issuer, though some ETNs may have a portfolio of assets given as a collateral.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Investment fund</span> Way of investing money alongside other investors

An investment fund is a way of investing money alongside other investors in order to benefit from the inherent advantages of working as part of a group such as reducing the risks of the investment by a significant percentage. These advantages include an ability to:

Collective trust funds or Collective Investment Trusts (CITs) are a legal trust administered by a bank or trust company that combines assets for multiple investors who meet specific requirements set forth in the fund’s declaration of trust. Typically, a collective trust pools assets from corporate and governmental profit sharing, pension and stock bonus plans, and charitable and other tax-exempt trusts. While operating in many respects similar to a mutual fund, a collective trust is not regulated by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, but rather is established under Title 12, Section 9.18(a)(2) of the Code of Federal Regulations of the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC), a division within the U.S. Department of the Treasury.

References

Works cited
Notes
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  10. ↑ Rouwenhorst, K. Geert (December 12, 2004). "The Origins of Mutual Funds". Yale School of Management . Social Science Research Network. SSRN   636146. Archived from the original on March 27, 2017. Retrieved March 26, 2017.
  11. ↑ Henriques 1995 , p. 51
  12. ↑ Farina, Freeman & Webster 1969 , p. 770
  13. ↑ Farina, Freeman & Webster 1969 , p. 744
  14. ↑ Farina, Freeman & Webster 1969 , p. 772
  15. ↑ Henriques 1995 , pp. 53–54
  16. ↑ Farina, Freeman & Webster 1969 , p. 748
  17. ↑ Fink, Matthew P. (January 13, 2011). The Rise of Mutual Funds: An Insider's View. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-975350-5. Archived from the original on November 3, 2023. Retrieved February 29, 2020.
  18. ↑ Henriques 1995 , p. 142
  19. 1 2 3 4 Robin Wigglesworth (2021). Trillions: How a Band of Wall Street Renegades Invented the Index Fund and Changed Finance Forever. Portfolio Books, ISBN 0593087682
  20. ↑ Rex Sinquefield's Crusade Against Income Taxes. Business Week. March 12, 2012.
  21. ↑ Riley, Naomi Schaefer (October 26, 2012). "The Weekend Interview with Rex Sinquefield: Meet One of the Super-PAC Men" . WSJ. Archived from the original on December 8, 2015. Retrieved December 30, 2015.
  22. 1 2 3 Pozen, Robert; Hamacher, Theresa (2015). The Fund Industry: How Your Money is Managed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley. pp. 8–14. ISBN   9781118929940.
  23. ↑ Gomolka, Johannes; Jasny, Ralf (January 10, 2007). "Die zwei Gesichter der deutschen Fondsbranche. Cut-Off-Zeit und Zeitzonenarbitrage" [The two faces of the German fund industry. Cut-off time and time zone arbitrage](PDF) (in German). Hannover: Ibidem Press. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 3, 2021. Retrieved October 3, 2021.
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  31. ↑ "Mutual Funds - India". Archived from the original on 2020-10-26. Retrieved 2020-11-01.
  32. ↑ Viswanathan, Ganapathy. "'Mutual Funds Sahi Hai' – The anatomy of a campaign that fortified a category - Adgully.com". www.adgully.com. Archived from the original on 2022-03-02. Retrieved 2022-03-02.
  33. ↑ Ammann, Kind & Wilde (2010)
  34. ↑ Ammann, Kind & Wilde (2010) , p. 2601-2603
  35. ↑ "Final Rule: Registration Form Used by Open-End Management Investment Companies: Sample Form and instructions". U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. March 23, 1998. Archived from the original on March 27, 2017. Retrieved March 26, 2017.

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