Northern whiting

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Northern whiting
Sillago sihama.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Acanthuriformes
Family: Sillaginidae
Genus: Sillago
Species:
S. sihama
Binomial name
Sillago sihama
Fabricius, 1775
S. sihama distribution.PNG
Range of the Northern whiting
Synonyms
  • Atherina sihama Fabricius, 1775
  • Platycephalus sihamus (Fabricius, 1775)
  • Sciaena malabarica Bloch & Schneider, 1801
  • Sillago acuta Cuvier, 1817
  • Sillago erythraea Cuvier, 1829
  • Sillago malabarica Bloch & Schneider, 1849

The northern whiting (Sillago sihama), also known as the silver whiting and sand smelt, is a marine fish, the most widespread and abundant member of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The northern whiting was the first species of sillaginid scientifically described and is therefore the type species of both the family Sillaginidae and the genus Sillago . The species is distributed in the Indo-Pacific region from South Africa in the west to Japan and Indonesia in the east. The northern whiting inhabits coastal areas to 60 m, but is most often found in shallow water around bays and estuaries, often entering freshwater. It is a carnivore, taking a variety of polychaetes and crustaceans. The species is of major economic importance throughout the Indo-Pacific. It is most frequently taken by seine nets and cast nets and marketed fresh.

Contents

Taxonomy

The northern whiting is one of over 30 species in the genus Sillago , [2] which is one of five genera belonging to the smelt whiting family Sillaginidae, this family was previously considered to be part of the Percoidea, a suborder of the Perciformes. [3] The 5th edition of Fishes of the World classifies the Sillaginidae in the order Spariformes. [4]

The northern whiting was first described by Peter Forsskål in 1775 under the name Atherina sihama, mistaking the fish as a species of hardyhead. The species was subsequently placed in the genus Platycephalus , before its true identity as a new genus was realized and Sillago was created in 1816. [3] This was the first description and naming of any smelt-whiting, even though the author initially placed the species in the wrong genus. This makes S. sihama the type species of its genus, Sillago, as well as the type species of the family Sillaginidae, which was not to be named until 1846. However, Forsskål's name was not the only one applied to the species, with three other names given to the fish after the first correct naming. Two of these, S. acuta and S. erythraea were made by Georges Cuvier, and the other, Sciaena malabarica by Bloch and Schneider. These later names are junior synonyms and are discarded under the ICZN rules. [3] Due to its wide distribution, the species has been applied a number of common names, with northern whiting, silver whiting, sand smelt and silver sillago the most common English names. [5]

Description

The northern whiting's similarity to all other species in the genus Sillago has led to many less abundant species being confused with it. The species is known to grow to a maximum size of 31 cm, [6] however reports dating back to 1850 in Bengal suggest the species attains 3 feet (91 cm), which would make it the largest species of sillaginid. [7] These reports were never etched into the literature on the species, possibly because of presumed confusion with the similar but unrelated and larger milkfish and bonefish that inhabit the area. The species has a slightly compressed, elongate body tapering toward the terminal mouth. The dorsal fin is in two parts, the first made of feeble spines and the second of soft rays headed by a single feeble spine, while the ventral profile is straight. [8]

The fin anatomy is highly useful for identification purposes, with the species having 11 spines in the first dorsal fin, with one spine and 20 to 23 soft rays on the second dorsal fin. The anal fin has two spines with 21 to 23 soft rays posterior to the spines. Lateral line scales and cheek scales are also distinctive, with northern whiting possessing 66 to 72 lateral line scales and cheek scales positioned in 3–4 rows, all of which are ctenoid. The amount of vertebrae are also diagnostic, having 34 in total. The swim bladder is the most accurate diagnostic feature, having two posterior extensions and two anterior extensions. The two anterior extensions extend forward and diverge to end on each side of the basioccipital above the auditory capsule. Two lateral extensions also commence anteriorly, each of them sending a blind tubule anterolaterally and then extending along the abdominal wall. The lateral extensions are normally convoluted and have blind tubules arising along their length. The two posterior tapering extensions project into the caudal region, with one usually longer than the other. [3]

The colour of the body is variable, often being light tan, silvery yellow-brown, sandy brown, or honey coloured. The underside of the fish is usually paler, being brown to white in colour. A silver midlateral, longitudinal stripe is normally present. The dorsal fins are dusky on each end, with or without rows of dark brown spots on the second dorsal fin membranes. The caudal fin is dusky terminally, and there is no dark blotch at the base of the pectoral fin as in other sillaginids. All other fins are hyaline, but the anal fin occasionally has a whitish margin. [6]

Distribution and habitat

The northern whiting is the most geographically widespread of the Sillaginidae, but is still confined to the Indian and Western Pacific Oceans. Its easternmost range is from South Africa north along the west coast of Africa and into the Red sea and Persian Gulf. [5] It is common along the Indian and Asian coast, extending to Taiwan and has been recorded in Japan, however these likely are confused with S. japonica . [9] It is common throughout the Indonesian Archipelago, the Philippines and extends as far south as northern Australia. [10] The species has been declared an invasive species to the eastern Mediterranean, passing through the Suez Canal from the Red Sea since 1977 as part of the Lessepsian migration, becoming widespread. [11] In fact, the species of smelt-whiting which has invaded the Mediterranean is S. suezensis . [12]

The northern whiting is primarily an inshore species, rarely seen in depth of more than 20 m. It commonly inhabits both high energy beaches and sandbars as well as more protected bays along mangrove creeks and tidal flats. The species commonly enters estuaries, and has even been recorded in freshwater, despite the fact it has no anatomical adaptations to cope with this change. The northern whiting does not migrate or move offshore at various times of the year like some co-occurring sillaginids. [13]

Biology

Like most members of the family, S. sihama can bury itself in the sand when danger approaches and commonly avoids seine-nets by employing this behaviour, giving them the common name 'sandborer' in some countries.

Diet

The principal items of diet are polychaete worms, small prawns and copepods, [14] with other Crustacea including Decapoda, [15] Ocypoda, shrimps, and amphipods also taken. Small fish are often taken and filamentous algae is consumed. Australian specimens frequently contain polychaete worms and small Crustacea. The species often has a similar, but slightly different diet compared to other coexisting sillaginids and other fishes, [14] with few cases of wide dietary overlap recorded. The juveniles and adults also show disparity in their diets, with juveniles taking zooplankton such as copepods, while adults take larger crustaceans and polychaetes. [16]

Reproduction

Northern whiting reach sexual maturity at a minimum 106 mm in males and 117 mm in females, although most individuals from both sexes mature once they reach 130 mm in length and one year of age. [17] Growth in the species is rapid, attaining a length of 13 to 14 cm at about 1 year, 16 to 20 cm at 2 years, 20 to 24 cm at 3 years and 24 to 28 cm by 4 years of age. [18]

Spawning occurs year-round, but a peak of spawning activity occurs once during the year at variable times over the species range. Peak of spawning in Thailand is August and November, [17] November to April in the Philippines, [13] November to March in India, [19] and between July and February with a peak in November in Sri Lanka. [20] The egg is spherical, colourless and buoyant, 0.5 to 0.6 mm in diameter, and without a large oil globule. [21] Fecundity varied between 16 682 and 166 130. [6] The eggs and larval development of S. sihama has been extensively described separately by Bensam and Kato et al., with the distinguishing feature of the larvae being the pattern of melanophores distributed on the caudal fin base, having these in a vertical line. [13] [22]

Relationship to humans

Considerable catches of northern whiting are made but generally not reflected in the fishery statistics of countries they are taken in. In Pakistan the main fishery takes place in June to July. The catches reported in this single country range from 102 t (1980) to 859 t (1982) with an average of 404 t. [6] The species has come under heavy threat in Chinese waters from overfishing and environmental pollution. [23]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sillaginidae</span> Family of fishes

The Sillaginidae, commonly known as the smelt-whitings, whitings, sillaginids, sand borers and sand-smelts, are a family of benthic coastal marine fish historically classified in the order Perciformes, although the 5th edition of Fishes of the World places the family in the Spariformes. The smelt-whitings inhabit a wide region covering much of the Indo-Pacific, from the west coast of Africa east to Japan and south to Australia. The family comprises only five genera and 35 species, of which a number are dubious, with the last major revision of the family in 1992 unable to confirm the validity of a number of species. They are elongated, slightly compressed fish, often light brown to silver in colour, with a variety of markings and patterns on their upper bodies. The Sillaginidae are not related to a number of fishes commonly called 'whiting' in the Northern Hemisphere, including the fish originally called whiting, Merlangius merlangus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oriental trumpeter whiting</span> Species of fish

The oriental trumpeter whiting is a widely distributed species of benthic inshore fish in the smelt-whiting family. The species ranges from east Africa to Japan, inhabiting much if the southern Asian and Indonesian coastlines. Its morphology is very similar to other species within the genus Sillago, with a long, compressed body and silvery overall colour. It can be distinguished from its relatives by colour patterns and particularly swim bladder morphology, which helps define most species of Sillago. S aeolus is a benthic predator, consuming a variety of crustaceans and polychaetes. As with most members of the smelt whiting family, it is important to small coastal fisheries in various areas of its range.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Golden lined whiting</span> Species of fish

The golden lined whiting, also known as the Tin Can Bay whiting or rough-scale whiting, is a species of inshore marine fish of the smelt whiting family, Sillaginidae that inhabits the coastlines of northern Australia and lower Papua New Guinea. The golden lined whiting can be more readily distinguished by its colour than other whitings in the genus Sillago, although swim bladder morphology and spine and ray counts are the most precise method of identification. S. analis is an opportunistic predator, taking a variety of crustaceans, polychaetes and molluscs, with a transition of diet seen as the fish mature. One unusual aspect about the species diet is the large amounts of molluscan siphons it takes. The species spawns between January and March, with juvenile fish inhabiting the shallow protected coastal waters. Golden lined whiting is important to fisheries centered on Shark Bay in Western Australia and also in Queensland, although makes up a relatively minor component of the whiting fishery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shortnose whiting</span> Species of fish

The shortnose whiting is a poorly known species, described in 1989, of inshore marine fish of the smelt whiting family Sillaginidae that inhabits only the Persian Gulf. S. arabica is similar in morphology to other sillaginids, although has a distinctive shortened snout which gives the species its common name. This species is of no current interest to local fisheries, although beach seines may take minor amounts of this species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Asian whiting</span> Species of fish

The Asian whiting is a species inshore marine fish in the smelt whiting family, Sillaginidae, distributed along the Asian coastline from the Gulf of Thailand to Taiwan. The Asian whiting's appearance is very similar to other closely related species in the genus Sillago, with swim bladder morphology and ray counts of fins the most reliable identifying features. The species inhabits slightly deeper water than many of the sillaginid species its distribution overlaps, forming an important part of the whiting fishery in the countries within its range.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Boutan's whiting</span> Species of fish

Boutan's whiting is a poorly understood species of coastal marine fish of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae that inhabits the waters of the Gulf of Tonkin and south eastern China. Like most sillaginids, the species inhabits areas populated with a number of other whiting species of similar appearance, causing the species to often be misidentified as the well known Sillago sihama, and for this reason its biology is poorly known. The species is taken by seine net in Vietnam and is often exported to Japan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western trumpeter whiting</span> Species of fish

The western trumpeter whiting is a species of marine fish of the smelt whiting family Sillaginidae that is commonly found along the northern coast of Australia and in southern Indonesia and New Guinea. As its name suggests, it is closely related to and resembles the trumpeter whiting which inhabits the east coast of Australia and is distinguishable by swim bladder morphology alone. The species inhabits a variety of sandy, silty and muddy substrates in depths from 0 to 15 m deep, with older fish inhabiting deeper waters. Western trumpeter whiting are benthic carnivores which take predominantly crustaceans and polychaetes as prey. The species reaches sexual maturity at the end of its first year of age, spawning in batches between December and February. The species is taken as bycatch with other species of whiting and shrimps in Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sand whiting</span> Species of fish

The sand whiting, also known as the summer whiting, yellowfin whiting or blue-nose whiting, is a common species of coastal marine fish of the family Sillaginidae, the smelt-whitings. It is a slender, slightly compressed fish that is very similar to other species of Sillago, with detailed spine, ray and lateral line scale counts needed to distinguish the species between its nearest relative Sillago analis. The sand whiting is distributed along the east coast of Australia from Cape York south to Tasmania, as well as Lord Howe Island and New Caledonia in the Pacific Ocean.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eastern school whiting</span> Species of fish

The eastern school whiting, also known as the redspot whiting, Bass Strait whiting, Flinders' sillago, silver whiting or spotted whiting, is a species of benthic marine fish of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The eastern school whiting is endemic to Australia, distributed along the east coast from southern Queensland down to Tasmania and South Australia, where it inhabits sandy substrates from shallow tidal flats to depths of 180 m on the continental shelf. Eastern school whiting prey on various crustaceans and polychaete worms, with the diet varying seasonally and throughout the range of the species. Eastern school whiting reproduce in the deeper waters twice a year, releasing up to 110,000 eggs during a season.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indian sillago</span> Species of fish

Sillago indica, the Indian sillago, is a poorly known species of coastal marine fish of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The species was named in 1985, having previously being misidentified as another species of Sillago, S. parvisquamis. The Indian sillago inhabits the coasts of the Indian subcontinent and Oman. Like all sillaginids, it is benthic in nature, living in depths to 30 m where it is caught by fishermen alongside other species of Sillago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intermediate whiting</span> Species of fish

The Intermediate whiting, is a species of coastal marine fish of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The intermediate whiting ranges from the west coast of India to the Gulf of Thailand in the east, inhabiting silty substrates in shallow waters. First identified in 1977 from a specimen found in a fish market, the species has had little research performed on its biology, and is frequently misidentified as Sillago sihama or Sillago maculata intermediate whiting are commonly caught by fishermen throughout their range and are marketed fresh locally.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Japanese whiting</span> Species of fish

The Japanese whiting, also known as the Japanese sillago or Shiro-gisu, is a common species of coastal marine fish belonging to the smelt-whiting family, Sillaginidae. As suggested by its name, the Japanese whiting was first recorded from Japan in 1843, but has subsequently been found to extend to Korea, China and Taiwan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trumpeter whiting</span> Species of fish

The trumpeter whiting, also known as the winter whiting or diver whiting, is a common species of coastal marine fish of the smelt-whiting family, Sillaginidae. The trumpeter whiting is endemic to Australia, inhabiting the eastern seaboard from southern New South Wales to northern Queensland. The species is found in bays, estuaries, coastal lakes and mangrove creeks on silty and muddy substrates in waters ranging from 0 to 30 m deep, occasionally inhabiting sandy and seagrass beds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Large-headed whiting</span> Species of fish

The large-headed whiting is a dubious species of coastal marine fish in the smelt-whiting family that has only been recorded from one specimen captured off the coast of China in 1933. Although very similar to Sillago sihama, the species is characterised by an unusually large head which accounts for 33% of the total body length.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Small-eyed whiting</span> Species of fish

The small-eyed whiting is a poorly known species of coastal marine fish of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The species is known from only two specimens; the holotype collected by Roland McKay in 1985 from a Taipei market, both specimens of which were taken from the waters of Taiwan. Apart from a relatively small eye size, the species is hard to distinguish from other common species of sillaginid taken in the area, and may be a minor part of local fisheries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Small-scale whiting</span> Species of fish

The small-scale whiting, also known as the blue whiting, is a species of inshore marine fish of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The small-scale whiting is very similar in body shape and colour to other species in the genus Sillago, but is distinguished by having 12 or 13 spines in the first dorsal fin compared to 11 in all other species. The species is distributed through parts of the west Pacific Ocean including Japan, Taiwan, Korea and India, inhabiting the tidal flats of major estuaries. It is a benthic predator taking crustaceans, molluscs and annelids. Spawning in the species takes place from May to September, with peaks identified in June and July. The eggs and larvae have been extensively studied in order to distinguish them from the more abundant Sillago sihama. Minor fisheries exist for the small-scale whiting, although it is thought be endangered by habitat loss and pollutionIUCN.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soringa whiting</span> Species of fish

The soringa whiting, also known simply as soringa or soringa sillago, is a poorly known species of coastal marine fish of the smelt-whiting family, Sillaginidae. The Soringa whiting is known exclusively from the east coast of India, inhabiting shallow inshore environments, particularly sandy substrates. S. soringa was first described in 1982 by Dutt and Sujatha, with the taxonomic status of the species was questioned by Roland McKay in his review of the Sillaginidae, with similar features to S. asiatica suggesting it is a senior synonym of the latter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Estuarine whiting</span> Species of fish

The estuarine whiting, also known as Vincent's whiting, is a species of benthic inshore marine fish of the smelt-whiting family, Sillaginidae. The estuarine whiting is very similar in appearance to the northern whiting, Sillago sihama, and as such was mistaken for the latter until 1980, when R.J. McKay identified the species based primarily on swimbladder morphology. The estuarine whiting is distributed along both the east and west coasts of India, primarily inhabiting the muddy substrates of estuaries. The species is locally important to fisheries in India, and is recognized as having aquaculture potential.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western school whiting</span> Species of fish

The western school whiting, also known as the banded whiting, golden whiting and bastard whiting, is a species of benthic marine fish in the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The species is one of three 'school whiting' that inhabit southern Australia and share a very similar appearance. Western school whiting are known to grow to 30 cm in length and 275 g in weight, although unconfirmed reports suggest this might be an underestimate. The western school whiting is distributed along the Western Australian coast from Maud Landing in the north to Rottnest Island in the south. The species inhabits both shallow inshore environments and waters to depths of 55 m. The species is a benthic predator, taking a variety of crustaceans, molluscs and echinoderms, and shows a change in diet with age and habitat. S. vittata is a multiple spawner, reproducing between December and February once it has reached one or two years of age. Juveniles inhabit protected inshore waters, moving offshore once they reach sexual maturity. It is often found in association with other sillaginids and comprises a minor fraction of commercial whiting catches in Western Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stout whiting</span> Species of fish

The stout whiting, also known as the yellow-cheek whiting or school whiting, is a species of benthic marine fish in the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. Like other sillaginids, it is an elongate, slightly compressed fish, growing to a maximum known length of 30 cm. The stout whiting is endemic to Australia, with the species divided into western and eastern populations, with the western population ranging from Shark Bay to Fremantle and the eastern population from Bustard Head, Queensland to northern New South Wales. The species inhabits deep, sandy continental shelf regions to a depth of at least 70 m.

References

  1. ↑ Smith-Vaniz, W.F.; Sparks, J.S. (2017) [errata version of 2016 assessment]. "Sillago sihama". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2016: e.T203423A115349449. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T203423A2765049.en . Retrieved 2 July 2024.
  2. ↑ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Species in genus Sillago". FishBase . June 2023 version.
  3. 1 2 3 4 McKay, R.J. (1985). "A Revision of the Fishes of the Family Sillaginidae". Memoirs of the Queensland Museum. 22 (1): 1–73.
  4. ↑ Nelson, J.S.; Grande, T.C.; Wilson, M.V.H. (2016). Fishes of the World (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 502–506. doi:10.1002/9781119174844. ISBN   978-1-118-34233-6. LCCN   2015037522. OCLC   951899884. OL   25909650M.
  5. 1 2 Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Sillago sihama". FishBase . October 2007 version.
  6. 1 2 3 4 McKay, R.J. (1992). FAO Species Catalogue: Vol. 14. Sillaginid Fishes Of The World (PDF). Rome: Food and Agricultural Organisation. pp. 19–20. ISBN   92-5-103123-1.
  7. ↑ Cantor, Dr. T. (1850). "Catalogue of Malayan Fishes". Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 18. Baptist Mission Press: 983. Retrieved 2008-05-12.
  8. ↑ Kuiter, R.H. (1993). Coastal fishes of south-eastern Australia. U.S.A: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN   1-86333-067-4.
  9. ↑ Carpenter, Kent E.; Volker H. Niem, eds. (2001). FAO species identification guide for fishery purposes. The living marine resources of the Western Central Pacific. Volume 5. Bony fishes part 3 (Menidae to Pomacentridae) (PDF). Rome: FAO. p. 2684. ISBN   92-5-104587-9.
  10. ↑ Sheaves, Marcus (2006). "Scale-dependent variation in composition of fish fauna among sandy tropical estuarine embayments" (PDF). Marine Ecology Progress Series. 310: 173–184. Bibcode:2006MEPS..310..173S. doi: 10.3354/meps310173 .
  11. ↑ Golani, Daniel (1998). "Impact of Red Sea Fish Migrants through the Suez Canal on the Aquatic Environment of the Eastern Mediterranean" (PDF). Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies Bulletin. 103 (Transformations of Middle Eastern Natural Environments): 375–387. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-08-28. Retrieved 2007-10-14.
  12. ↑ Golani, D.; R. Fricke; Y. Tikochinski (2013). "Sillago suezensis, a new whiting from the northern Red Sea, and status of Sillago erythraea Cuvier (Teleostei: Sillaginidae)". Journal of Natural History. 48 (7–8)): 413–428. doi:10.1080/00222933.2013.800609.
  13. 1 2 3 Kato, Mitsuhiro; Hiroshi Kohno; Yasuhiko Taki (1996). "Juveniles of two sillaginids, Sillago aeolus and S. sihama, occurring in a surf zone in the Philippines". Ichthyological Research. 43 (4). The Ichthyological Society of Japan: 431–439. doi:10.1007/BF02347640. S2CID   45198469.
  14. 1 2 Hajisamae, Sukree; Pun Yeesin; Sakri Ibrahim (2006). "Feeding ecology of two sillaginid fishes and trophic interrelations with other co-existing species in the southern part of South China Sea". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 76 (2–4). Springer: 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10641-006-9018-3. S2CID   20269750.
  15. ↑ Mohammed, A.R.M; Mutlak, F.M.; Saleh, J.H. (2003). "Food habits of Sillago sihama (Froskal, 1775) in the Iraqi marine waters, northwest Persian Gulf / Iraq". Marina Mesopotamica. 18 (1): 35–42. 1815-2058.
  16. ↑ Tongnunui, Prasert; Sano, Mitsuhiko; Kurokura, Hisashi (2005). "Feeding habits of two sillaginid fishes, Sillago sihama and S-aeolus, at Sikao Bay, Trang Province, Thailand". Mer. 43 (1–2): 9–17. 0503-1540.
  17. 1 2 Tongnunui, Prasert; Sano, Mitsuhiko; Kurokura, Hisashi (2006). "Reproductive biology of two sillaginid fishes, Sillago sihama and S. aeolus, in tropical coastal waters of Thailand". Mer. 44 (1): 1–16. Archived from the original on 2008-05-18. Retrieved 2007-11-15.
  18. ↑ Radhakrishnan, N. (1954). "Occurrence of growth rings on the otoliths of the Indian whiting, Sillago sihama (Forsskål)". Current Science. 23 (4): 196–197.
  19. ↑ Chacko, P.I. (1950). "Marine plankton from waters around the Krusadai Islands". Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences. 31 (B): 162–174. doi:10.1007/BF03051207.
  20. ↑ Jayasankar, P (1991). "Sillaginid fishes of Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar with an account on the maturation and spawning of Indian sand whiting, Sillago sihama (Forsskal)" (PDF). Indian Journal of Fisheries. 38 (1): 13–25. Retrieved 23 May 2012.
  21. ↑ Palekar, V.C.; Bal, D.V. (1961). "Studies on the maturation and spawning of the Indian whiting (Sillago sihama Forsskål) from Karwar waters". Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences. 54 (B): 76–93. doi:10.1007/BF03051584.
  22. ↑ Bensam, P. (1990). "Eggs and early larvae of the sand whiting Silligo sihama (Forsskal)" (PDF). Indian Journal of Fisheries. 37 (3): 237–241. Retrieved 23 May 2012.
  23. ↑ Qian W, Yang Guang, et al. (2006). "Fish resources and their conservation strategies in Hepu Dugong State Nature Reserve and its adjacent waters". Yingyong Shengtai Xuebao. 17 (9): 1715–20. PMID   17147187. 1001-9332.
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