Over 15,000 people were airlifted to safety on more than 100 flights in the largest British evacuation since the Second World War and the largest airlift since the Berlin Blockade of 1948–9. Of those evacuated, 5,000 were British nationals and 8,000 were Afghans who were vulnerable to persecution by the Taliban due to their role in assisting British forces during Operation Herrick (2002–2014). Around 2,200 evacuees were children, with the youngest just one day old.[1]
The evacuation implemented commitments made by the British government under the Afghan Relocations and Assistance Policy (ARAP), which began in April 2021. In total, 10,000 eligible Afghans were evacuated under ARAP through to the end of Operation Pitting.
The operation marked the end of the UK's 20-year military occupation in Afghanistan.[6]
In February 2020, the United States and the Taliban signed the Doha Agreement which permitted the release of 5,000 Taliban prisoners, including 400 who were accused and convicted of major crimes, such as murder, in exchange for US and NATO withdrawal from Afghanistan, the prevention of Al-Qaeda operating in areas under Taliban control and dialogue between the Taliban and Afghan government.[13] However, within 45 days of the agreement, between 1 March and 15 April 2020, there had been a significant upsurge in Taliban attacks against Afghan security forces.[14] On 22 June 2020, 291 ANSF were killed in the previous week and 550 wounded in 422 attacks carried out by the Taliban. At least 42 civilians, including women and children, were also killed with 105 wounded, in 18 provinces.[15] Despite this, the Trump administration in the United States agreed to an initial reduction of its force level from 13,000 to 8,600 by July 2020, followed by a full withdrawal by 1 May 2021.[16] The newly-incumbent Biden administration subsequently extended the withdrawal deadline to 11 September 2021.[17] This was further shifted to 31 August.[18] The Taliban stepped up its offensives in response to the US and NATO withdrawals, making significant advancements in the countryside and increasing the number of its controlled districts from 73 to 223 in the first three months.[19] From 6 August 2021, the Taliban had captured twenty of Afghanistan's 34 provincial capitals, including Kandahar and Herat, and by 10 August, it controlled 65% of the country's area.[20] British Secretary of State for DefenceBen Wallace was highly critical of the deal between the US and the Taliban, describing it as "rotten" and a "mistake".[21] In an interview with the press, Wallace also stated he was so "aghast" at the US decision to withdraw that he canvassed other NATO allies to see if there was support for a new alliance without the United States.[22]
Afghan Relocations and Assistance Policy
In the UK, calls were made by veterans, politicians and campaigners for the government to grant asylum to Afghans who assisted British forces during the war, such as interpreters, due to fears of Taliban reprisals.[23][24][25] In December 2020, the UK government launched the Afghan Relocations and Assistance Policy (ARAP) scheme to offer relocation of eligible Afghans to the UK. An Afghan Threat and Risk Evaluation Unit (ATREU) was established at the British Embassy in Kabul to assess candidates. The scheme began to offer relocation or other assistance in April 2021.[26]
On 6 August, the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) advised all British nationals to leave Afghanistan immediately due to the worsening security situation; however, it warned people not to rely on the FCDO for support due to the limited capacity of the British Embassy in Kabul.[27] The FCDO believed more than 4,000 British nationals were situated in Afghanistan at the time.[28]
Operational history
Authorisation
The operation was first announced on 13 August 2021 after it was authorised by Prime Minister Boris Johnson. Its stated aim, according to the Ministry of Defence, was to evacuate British nationals, embassy staff and Afghans eligible for relocation under the Afghan Relocation and Assistance Policy (ARAP). The operation began with approximately 600 military personnel, some of which were drawn from the British Army's high-readiness 16 Air Assault Brigade, tasked with logistical support and force protection. They were joined by a small team from the Home Office to assist the FCDO in Kabul with processing visas and other travel documents. Command and control for the operation was based at Permanent Joint Headquarters in Northwood, London[5] and it was led by Commander of Joint Operations Sir Ben Key.[29] The United States carried out a concurrent military operation with the same aim, code-named Operation Allies Refuge,[30] and there were similar operations being carried out by other countries.[31] The UK established an airbridge between the UK and Afghanistan with stop-overs taking place in the United Arab Emirates.[32] The operation had been planned months before, however the Taliban offensive progressed far quicker than expected.[33]
UK military personnel deploying from RAF Brize Norton (13 August 2021)Personnel from 16 Air Assault Brigade arriving in Kabul (15 August 2021)
British military personnel began arriving at Kabul's Hamid Karzai International Airport on 15 August aboard a Royal Air ForceBoeing C-17 Globemaster III.[34] HQ staff worked to establish a command and control centre beyond the airport wire to coordinate evacuation efforts, whilst other troops helped vacate diplomatic staff at the British Embassy and also establish a processing centre at Baron Hotel.[35] Elsewhere, troops began cooperating with US forces to secure the airport.[36] During the same day, Kabul, the capital and largest city of Afghanistan, fell to the Taliban shortly after Afghan President Ashraf Ghani fled the country, leading to the collapse of the Afghan government. The Taliban subsequently requested a peaceful transfer of power.[37] During the Fall of Kabul, the airport was targeted by gunfire and mortar rounds. Some of these rounds landed around an RAF A400M Atlas C1 aircraft which had landed with military personnel on board.[38]
On 16 August, the first flight of 370 evacuees arrived at RAF Brize Norton in Oxfordshire, England via an RAF Airbus A330 Voyager aircraft.[36] A total of eleven RAF aircraft, consisting of four Voyagers, four C-17s, two Atlas C1s and one Lockheed C-130J Hercules were involved in operations during the same day.[39] Following the suspension of most commercial flights from Kabul, crowds of stranded Afghans took to the runways out of desperation and attempted to board aircraft. There were at least five confirmed deaths, with some falling to their deaths after latching onto the sides of aircraft that were taking off.[40] This occurred in the commercial part of the airport, whilst British forces operated in the separate military side; Defence Secretary Ben Wallace was given assurances from the Taliban, via a third party, that the military side would be kept functional. During an interview with LBC, an emotional Wallace also admitted that some people would be left behind, particularly those not in Kabul, but insisted that the operation was open-ended and without a time limit. According to Wallace, the operation aimed to evacuate a further 1,500 people over the next 24–36 hours.[28] A further 200 military personnel were deployed to Kabul, bringing the total to 900, with further troops able to rapidly deploy from elsewhere in the region, as well as from the UK, if necessary.[41][42]
UK military personnel at Kabul International Airport (19 August 2021)An RAF C-17 at Kabul International Airport to assist with evacuations (20 August 2021)
By 17 August, US forces, with the support of British and allied forces, had successfully taken control of the airport.[46] The airport subsequently became more stable, allowing the RAF to begin mass airlifts. The access points to the airport, as well as the city at large, remained under Taliban control, however the Taliban were cooperative with local commanders.[47]Chief of Joint Operations Vice Admiral Sir Ben Key warned that if the Taliban became uncooperative, British forces may have to abandon rescue operations.[48]
On 18 August, reports began to emerge that Taliban checkpoints outside the airport were refusing entry to some Afghans and beating women and children.[49] This was followed by a report published by the RHIPTO Norwegian Center for Global Analyses that the Taliban were conducting door-to-door searches for Afghans who had previously assisted coalition forces.[50] During the same day, two RAF evacuation flights took place, carrying a potential maximum of 250 passengers each, which also included 76 Australians.[51]
On 19 August, Defence Secretary Ben Wallace announced that no unattended children would be permitted to fly after footage was released of desperate Afghan families handing over their children to British and US forces.[52]
On 20 August, a report from The Times claimed UK Special Forces were active in Kabul and seeking out those unable to access the airport due to the Taliban.[53] In the previous 24 hours, the RAF had evacuated 963 people.[45]
On 21 August, soaring temperatures and cramped conditions lead to increased disorder from growing queues of Afghans. This resulted in casualties, which were tended to by British medics, as well as a number of deaths. To try and maintain order, shots were fired into the air.[54] During the same day, an on-scene report by Sky News Chief Correspondent Stuart Ramsay provided an insight into the procedures undertaken by British forces. According to his report, a compound was being used to process evacuees which had a row of shipping containers at its entrance. Soldiers were stood atop them and called eligible people forward. Beyond the containers, a chaotic crowd of "possibly tens of thousands" awaited processing, held back by a line of paratroopers with riot shields. Taliban militants were also present in the crowd, beating people with canes. They also checked documents and ushered people to the front of the queue if they had basic travel documentation, such as a passport. They were then let through the line of paratroopers and shipping containers for further processing.[55] According to another report by the same author, the Taliban cooperated closely with the paratroopers, sometimes standing atop their shipping containers.[56] Once through the compound, a bus shuttled the evacuees to a passenger handling facility where the RAF Police performed safety checks and RAF movers processed check-ins. The Royal Logistics Corps was responsible for all logistics.[57]
Growing security threat and US withdrawal
On 22 August, the US made changes to its evacuation procedures due to the threat posed by ISIL-KP, a branch of the Islamist terrorist organisation Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant which is known to be active in Afghanistan.[58] The UK also acknowledged this threat.[59] Whilst both radical Jihadist groups, ISIL-KP follows Wahhabi-Salafist traditions which are a lot more extreme than the Deobandi traditions practised by the Taliban. This has brought both groups into conflict with one another.[60]
On 23 August, Defence Secretary Ben Wallace announced that the UK had "hours not weeks" to complete its evacuations after the US announced its intention to withdraw on 31 August. The UK government said it would request an extension of the US deadline to allow more flights to take place, however, the Taliban said it would not support a deadline extension.[61] On the same day, it was announced that a total of 6,631 people had been evacuated by the UK since operations began.[62] This included one person who was shortly afterwards thought to be on a "no-fly" watchlist, used to protect against those deemed to be a security threat, such as terrorists, but later confirmed not to be.[63] Around 200 members of the Black Watch, 3rd Battalion, Royal Regiment of Scotland prepared to deploy.[64] In total, over 1,000 military personnel were now involved with operations.[2]
On 24 August, the UK hosted an emergency meeting for G7 leaders which Prime Minister Boris Johnson used to request an extension of the US deadline, backed by the leaders of France, Germany, Italy, Canada and Japan. In response, the Taliban reiterated its position, describing a deadline extension as a "violation" which it would respond to.[65] Following the G7 leaders meeting, the US announced that the deadline would remain in place.[66] In the UK, questions were raised on the prospects of the UK military taking over Kabul airport after the departure of the US, however, according to retired British Army General Sir Richard Barrons, the UK would find it difficult to replace the vast resources the US has deployed and the Taliban, opposed to foreign forces remaining beyond the US withdrawal, had the potential to pose too great a threat.[67] Former Defence Minister Johnny Mercer denied claims the UK was unable to carry out its operations without the US and argued it was an issue of political will.[68]
On 26 August, Prime Minister Boris Johnson stated the "overwhelming majority" of eligible people had been evacuated by the UK, amounting to a total of around 15,000 people, however around 2,000 remained.[69] Defence Minister James Heappey admitted that some people would not be evacuated by the 31 August deadline. Heappey also warned of the risk posed by Islamic State and claimed there was "now very, very credible reporting of an imminent attack".[70] During the same day, a suicide bombing occurred on the outskirts of the airport which resulted in the deaths of at least 182 people, including 13 US military personnel,[71] and injuries to over 150. Two British nationals and the child of a British national were also killed.[72] There were initial reports of a second bombing occurring at Baron Hotel, which was being used as a processing centre for British forces,[73] however subsequent investigations found a second attack had not taken place.[74] Following the attack, British forces provided medical assistance to the wounded and secured the perimeter, allowing US forces to extract their dead or wounded.[75][76][77] British forces also assisted with bomb disposal.[75]
Wallace announced that British forces would withdraw ahead of the US but insisted that the attacks, blamed on ISIL-KP, had not hastened this departure.[78]2nd Battalion, The Yorkshire Regiment (2 YORKS) had arrived in Kabul on the same day, deploying from Cyprus.[79] Hours after the attack, an RAF C-17 loaded with evacuees also had a near miss with three vehicles, including a bus, which had mistakenly steered onto the runway. Both pilots believed aborting take-off would result in a collision, however the aircraft was able to reach the required speed to get airborne, narrowly missing the vehicles by 10–15ft (3.0–4.6m). Further complicating the situation, the aircraft had to take-off without the aid of runway lights as the airport had suffered a power failure.[38]
On 31 August, emails revealed to BBC Newsnight showed that the British Embassy had instructed evacuees to reach Abbey Gate hours before the attack, despite the UK and US previously announcing an attack was imminent. On 30 August, Politico also claimed that US commanders wanted to close Abbey Gate due to the risk of an attack but kept it open at the UK's request to allow British evacuations to take place. These claims, however, were denied by the UK government.[80][81]
Final stage
On 27 August, the UK government announced the Kabul evacuation had entered its final stage. As part of the drawdown, the processing centre at Baron Hotel was closed and the focus shifted to evacuating those already processed. Defence Secretary Ben Wallace described his "deep regret" that not everyone would be able to evacuate but praised the efforts of those involved in evacuating over 13,000 people in 14 days.[82] Wallace also disclosed that timetables had been "squeezed" and military equipment was under consideration to be left behind or destroyed to free up capacity for more Afghans and British nationals.[83]
On 28 August, Chief of the Defence StaffSir Nick Carter confirmed that evacuation operations were ending that same day, stating that it was "heartbreaking" that they had failed to evacuate everyone who wanted to get out.[84] During one of the final evacuation flights, flying via Dubai to Birmingham, an Afghan refugee gave birth to a baby girl.[85] The final evacuation flight for civilians left later on that same day,[86] followed by the very final evacuation flight, carrying military personnel, marking the end of the operation.[87] Between 800–1,100 eligible Afghans and 100–150 British nationals were estimated to have been left behind, along with some military equipment.[88] The UK government subsequently entered into talks with the Taliban on the safe passage out of Afghanistan of those left behind.[89]
By the end of the operation, the RAF had carried out over 100 evacuation flights, amounting to a total of 261,000 miles (420,000km).[90] Thirty-one flights from Kabul were undertaken by the A400M, forty-six by the C-17 and twenty-four by the C-130J.[91] One flight undertaken by a C-17 carried a total of 436 people, triple the aircraft's designed capacity and the highest capacity flight in RAF history.[92] A total of over 15,000 people were evacuated, consisting of 5,000 British nationals and 8,000 Afghans—2,200 of which were also children.[1]
Additionally, RAF personnel performed passenger check-ins, flight safety checks, force protection and moved passengers and freight to and from aircraft. Units involved included:
Operation Pitting marked the end of the UK's 20-year military involvement in Afghanistan.[6]
The total number of Afghans brought to the UK under the Afghan Relocations and Assistance Policy (ARAP) since it began in April reached around 10,000 people – double the number that was anticipated for 2021.[103] Two Afghans were confirmed to have been killed after being refused access to RAF flights out of the country.[104]
The British Embassy and Ambassador to Afghanistan Sir Laurie Bristow temporarily relocated to Qatar, but with the intention to reopen an embassy in Kabul as soon as possible.[103]
The UK government said the ARAP scheme is not time-limited, and other Afghans deemed vulnerable, such as women and girls, can apply for the Afghan citizens' resettlement scheme, which will take up to 20,000 refugees in coming years. Those who were called forward for evacuation during Operation Pitting, but who did not make a flight out of Kabul, would be guaranteed a place under the scheme.[103]
The UK government is considering incorporating Afghan special forces evacuated from Kabul into the British Army. The arrangement could be similar to the Brigade of Ghurkas that have served in the British Army for 200 years. Seven Afghan officer cadets are already enrolled at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst.[105]
On 31 August, it was reported that senior military figures and politicians had called for a medallic award for those who participated in the operation. This, however, received opposition from some Whitehall officials as the current medal criteria stipulates that medals can only be awarded for a minimum of 30 days continuous service; Operation Pitting in its entirety had a duration of just over two weeks. On January 19, 2022, it was announced that those who served on the operation and who met the eligibility criteria would be awarded the Afghanistan OSM with Operation Pitting clasp.[106][107] It was also reported that some members of 2 PARA were receiving psychological therapy after their participation in the operation.[107]
Sir Ben Key, Chief of Joint Operations in charge of Operation Pitting, was promoted to First Sea Lord, the professional head of the Royal Navy on 15 October 2021. Speaking on his promotion, Defence Secretary Ben Wallace praised his "key" role in the success of Operation Pitting.[108]
In a Cabinet reshuffle in September 2021, Prime Minister Boris Johnson demoted Foreign Secretary Dominic Raab. Raab had received strong criticism for refusing to return home early from a holiday whilst Afghanistan fell to the Taliban.[109][110][111]
On 19 January 2022, the Ministry of Defence announced that qualifying personnel from the Royal Navy, Royal Air Force and British Army would be awarded the Operational Service Medal for Afghanistan with a unique Operation Pitting clasp.[112]
Continued military operations
On 31 August 2021, following the end of the evacuation operation, Air Chief Marshal Sir Michael Wigston stated that the UK was ready to launch strikes against ISIL-KP, the group responsible for the terrorist attack which killed two British nationals and a child of a third, as well as 13 US service personnel and dozens of Afghans during Operation Pitting. Foreign SecretaryDominic Raab acknowledged this statement and did not reject the prospect.[113] In May 2021, Royal Navy First Sea LordTony Radakin stated that the UK Carrier Strike Group centred around HMSQueen Elizabeth was prepared to carry out strike operations against the Taliban if required.[114]
Following Operation Pitting, NATO launched Operation Allied Sollace to relocate eligible Afghans via third countries. On 13 September 2021, around 140 troops from 1st Battalion, Royal Gurkha Rifles deployed to Kosovo as part of this operation to provide force protection and assistance with processing refugees prior to their onward transfer to the UK.[115][35]
During October 2021, the RAF restarted periodic evacuation flights out of Afghanistan. The first airlifted up to 40 refugees to RAF Brize Norton in England via an undisclosed route.[116][117] Further refugees were airlifted via third countries.[118]
In December 2023 it emerged that some 200 British-trained Afghan special forces personnel and 32 former senior Afghan officials had had their applications for resettlement via the ARAP scheme refused, and potentially faced repatriation.[119]
The International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) was a multinational military mission in Afghanistan from 2001 to 2014. It was established by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1386 according to the Bonn Agreement, which outlined the establishment of a permanent Afghan government following the U.S. invasion in October 2001. ISAF's primary goal was to train the Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF) and assist Afghanistan in rebuilding key government institutions; it gradually took part in the broader war in Afghanistan against the Taliban insurgency.
Kabul International Airport is located in the northern part of Kabul, Afghanistan. It is one of the country's main international airports, capable of housing over a hundred military and civilian aircraft. It is currently operated by UAE-based GAAC Holding and Afghanistan's Ministry of Transport and Civil Aviation.
Ahmad Shah Baba International Airport, also referred to as Kandahar International Airport, and by some military officials as Kandahar Airfield, KAF), is located in the Daman District of Kandahar Province in Afghanistan, about 9 NM southeast from the city of Kandahar. It serves as the nation's second main international airport and as one of the largest main operating bases, capable of housing up to 250 aircraft of different sizes. The current head of the airport is Maulvi Fathullah Mansour.
Operation Herrick was the codename under which all British operations in the War in Afghanistan were conducted from 2002 to the end of combat operations in 2014. It consisted of the British contribution to the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), and support to the American-led Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF), within the country.
In January 2006, NATO's focus in southern Afghanistan was to form Provincial Reconstruction Teams with the British leading in Helmand Province and the Netherlands, Australia and Canada leading similar deployments in Orūzgān Province and Kandahar Province respectively. The United States, with 2,200 troops, stayed in control of Zabul Province. Local Taliban figures voiced opposition to the incoming force and pledged to resist it.
Camp Shorabak is a former British Army airbase, located northwest of the city of Lashkargah in Helmand Province, Afghanistan. The camp was situated in a remote desert area, far from population centres.
US and NATO International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) operations, alongside Afghan National Army forces, continued against the Taliban through 2007.
United States and NATO International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) operations, alongside Afghan National Army forces, continued against the Taliban through 2008.
The Embassy of the United States of America in Kabul was the official diplomatic mission of the United States of America to the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Its chancery on Great Massoud Road in the Wazir Akbar Khan neighborhood of the Afghan capital of Kabul was built at a cost of nearly $800 million.
Operation Toral was the codename for the British presence within Afghanistan post-2014 as part of NATO's Resolute Support Mission. UK forces had two major tasks: training and mentoring Afghan Forces, and providing force protection for NATO advisors via the Kabul Security Force/Kabul Protection Unit.
The following lists events that happened during 2015 in Afghanistan.
Operation Rescript was the code name for the British military operation to help tackle the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom and its Crown Dependencies between 2020 and 2022. It was described as the UK's "biggest ever homeland military operation in peacetime" by the Ministry of Defence (MOD), involving up to 23,000 personnel within a specialist task force, named the COVID Support Force (CSF). The support was given at the request of the UK government, its devolved administrations and civil authorities through the Military aid to the civil authorities (MACA) mechanism.
The year 2021 in Afghanistan was marked by a major offensive from the Taliban beginning in May and the Taliban capturing Kabul in August.
The United States Armed Forces completed their withdrawal from Afghanistan on 30 August 2021, marking the end of the 2001–2021 war. In February 2020, the Trump administration and the Taliban signed the United States–Taliban deal in Doha, Qatar, which stipulated fighting restrictions for both the US and the Taliban, and in return for the Taliban's counter-terrorism commitments, provided for the withdrawal of all NATO forces from Afghanistan by 1 May 2021. Following the deal, the US dramatically reduced the number of air attacks on the Taliban to the detriment of the Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF), and its fight against the Taliban insurgency.
The Embassy of the United Kingdom in Kabul was the United Kingdom's diplomatic mission to Afghanistan. The British first established a diplomatic mission, a legation, in 1922 after the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919. The Viceroy of India George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston ordered that a large and opulent compound be constructed and this was completed in 1927. The legation was withdrawn in the Kabul Airlift as a result of the 1928-29 civil war but was re-established in 1930. The legation became an embassy in 1948 but this was withdrawn in 1989 following the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan. The embassy compound was handed over to Pakistan in 1994. Following the 2001 United States invasion of Afghanistan an embassy was re-established at a new site in the Wazir Akbar Khan District. The embassy, on the edge of Kabul's secure zone, was considered vulnerable to attack in 2018 and consideration was given to a new site, but did not proceed. Following the start of the 2021 withdrawal of foreign troops from Afghanistan there has been speculation that the embassy might close.
Operation Allies Refuge was an evacuation effort carried out by the United States during the 2021 Taliban offensive. It took place in the final weeks of the War in Afghanistan and saw the airlifting of certain at-risk Afghan civilians, employees of the American embassy in Kabul, and other prospective applicants for the U.S. Special Immigrant Visa (SIV). American personnel also helped NATO and other regional allies in their respective evacuation efforts from Hamid Karzai International Airport in the capital city of Kabul. The operation was concurrent with the broader American military withdrawal from Afghanistan and the multinational evacuation of eligible foreigners and vulnerable Afghans.
On 15 August 2021, Afghanistan's capital city of Kabul was captured by the Taliban after a major insurgent offensive that began in May 2021. It was the final action of the War in Afghanistan, and marked a total victory for the Taliban. This led to the overthrowing of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan under President Ashraf Ghani and the reinstatement of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan under the control of the Taliban.
Large-scale evacuations of foreign citizens and some vulnerable Afghan citizens took place amid the withdrawal of US and NATO forces at the end of the 2001–2021 war in Afghanistan. The Taliban took control of Kabul and declared victory on 15 August 2021, and the NATO-backed Islamic Republic of Afghanistan collapsed. With the Taliban controlling the whole city except Hamid Karzai International Airport, hostilities ceased and the Taliban assisted in the evacuation effort by providing security and screening evacuees.
A suicide bombing took place at Hamid Karzai International Airport in Kabul, Afghanistan, on 26 August 2021, at 17:50 local time, during the evacuation from Afghanistan. At least 182 people were killed, including 169 Afghan civilians and 13 members of the United States military, the first American military casualties in the War in Afghanistan since February 2020. The Islamic State – Khorasan Province (ISIS–K) claimed responsibility for the attack.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
United Kingdom 
