Paramphistomum cervi

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Paramphistomum cervi
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Platyhelminthes
Class: Trematoda
Order: Plagiorchiida
Family: Paramphistomidae
Genus: Paramphistomum
Species:
P. cervi
Binomial name
Paramphistomum cervi
Zeder, 1790

Paramphistomum cervi, the type species of Paramphistomum , is a parasitic flat worm belonging to the class Trematoda. It is a tiny fluke mostly parasitising livestock ruminants, as well as some wild mammals. Uniquely, unlike most parasites, the adult worms are relatively harmless, but it is the developing juveniles that cause serious disease called paramphistomiasis (or classically amphistomosis), especially in cattle and sheep. Its symptoms include profuse diarrhoea, anaemia, lethargy, and often result in death if untreated. [1] [2]

Contents

It can be found in many regions of the world, including Australia, Asia, Africa, Eastern Europe, and Russia. It is most commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions. The most debilitating cases are reported in Europe from Bulgaria, Italy, France, and Poland and also in Asia from Thailand, India, and China. The parasitic infection was first described from Punjab, India. [3]

Description

Adult P. cervi is conical in shape, the anterior end tapering and the posterior being broad, and pink in colour. The colour is due to its own haemoglobin. They are 5–13 mm long, 2–5 mm wide, with the ventral side somewhat concave while the dorsal side is convex. It has two suckers, an anterior oral sucker and a posterior larger ventral sucker, hence the generic name (Greek: para meaning "besides", amphi meaning "on both sides", and stoma for "mouth"). The tegumental surface is highly corrugated with transverse folds alternating with grooves and is spineless, which is uncharacteristic of trematodes. The genital pore is situated at the anterior third of the body. There are two types of bulbous shaped sensory papillae on the surface, each measuring 10–15 µ in diameter at the base with nipple-like tips; one has a short cilia on top. Clusters of papillae on the ventral surface and around the anterior suckers are larger in size and number; while there are few on the dorsal surface. [4] As hermaphrodite, both male and female reproductive systems are present towards the posterior region of the body. Testes are slightly lobed and are located anterior to the ovary. Eggs are clear shell and measure about 140 x 80 µ; barrel-shaped with operculum at one end. [2]

Life cycle

The life cycle is indirect, involving a ruminant as definitive host, snail as intermediate host, and an interval of external phases in water and plants. The sexually mature monoecious adult self-fertilises in the mammalian rumen, and retains the eggs inside its uterus. [5] Eggs are then released in the host intestine and are expelled along with faeces. Eggs are deposited in water and hatch at optimal temperature of 27 °C (81 °F) in 12–17 days to become ciliated miracidia. The non-feeding miracidia often swim through water searching for a suitable snail host, either until they reach the host or die. Most common intermediate hosts are snails belonging to the genera Bulinus , Planorbis , Physa , Stagnicola and Pseudosuccinea . When sensing the soft outer surface of a snail, they attach and burrow through the epidermis and into the tissue. Young snails are more susceptible to such penetration. [6] [7] [8] In the snail tissue the miracidia lost their cilia within 12 hours and get transformed into sporocysts (~53 x 93 µ). By 11th day they develop up to 8 rediae, which are rapidly liberated. After 10 days the rediae mature and each contains 15–30 cercariae. The cercariae are released to grow further which may take about 13 days. Mature cercariae are characterised by two eyespots and a long slender tail. They are stimulated by light through the sensory eyespots in sunlight and leave the snail. They swim about in water until they find plants or other suitable substrata, to which they adhere and encyst to become metacercariae. [9] The process of this cyst formation requires about 20 minutes only. Metacercariae are infective larvae but cannot resist desiccation, hence soon die out if suitable host is not found; but under constantly moist conditions, they can survive for up to 1 year and are capable of overwintering. The mammalian hosts harbour the infective larvae by ingestion. Once they reach the duodenum and jejunum, their cysts are cast off. [10] Excystment is influenced by changing physicochemical conditions (such as temperature, substance concentration, and pH) inside the alimentary tract. Then they penetrate and feed on tissue of the gut wall of the small intestine. Once they develop sufficiently they migrate to the rumen, where the juveniles mature and produce ova. The period of rumen entry to egg laying takes about 60 to 120 days. However, the lifespan of an adult is unknown. [11] [12]

Pathogenicity and pathology

Paramphistomiasis causes enteritis and anaemia in livestocks mammals and result in substantial production and economic losses. Adults attach to the villi in the rumens of the hosts and sap nutrients from the intestine, although they can wander into the bile and pancreatic ducts, as do other trematodes. Pathological symptoms are produced by immature flukes. When the young flukes start to gather in the intestine, there is a watery and fetid diarrhoea which is often associated with high mortality (even up to 80–90%) in ruminants. At a given time, as many as 30,000 flukes may accumulate, fervently attacking the duodenal mucosa to induce acute enteritis. Surprisingly, the adult flukes are regarded as commensals and non-pathogenic. However, they do cause the intestinal villi to erode and instil inflammation. [13] Liver tissue are generally damaged extensively, indicated by swelling, haemorrhage, discolouration, necrosis, bile duct hyperplasia, and fibrosis. [14] Paramphistomiasis is responsible for severe economic losses to milk, meat and wool production since the flukes take nutrients from their hosts, which leads to weight loss and physiological decline.

Diagnosis and treatment

Symptoms are usually visible on the behaviour of the host. Infected sheep and cattle become severely anorexic or digest food inefficiently and become unthrifty. Continuous diarrhoea is an obvious indication of heavy infection in the digestive system, thus a primary diagnosis. The fluid faeces are examined to identify immature flukes. [2]

Paramphistomiasis is considered a neglected tropical disease, with no prescription drug for treatment and control. Thus management of infection is based mainly on to reduce the host snail population. There are some treatment strategies demonstrated. A common regime is to drench with hexachloroethane-bentonite-water suspension, which is highly effective against adult parasites. Treatments with reported success (efficacies >90%) are resorantel, oxyclozanide, clorsulon, ivermectin and the combination of bithional and levamisole. [6] [15] [16] Most important commercial anthelmintics are shown to be practically useless, including albendazole, praziquantel, nitroxynil, triclabendazole, profenophos and netobimin; while niclosamide has high efficacy (99%) against immature fluke but not adult fluke, and 2-tertiary-butyl benzthiazole compound (CGA 72630), hexachlorophene and resorantel are highly effective against both adult and immature flukes. [17] [18] An in vitro demonstration shows that plumbagin exhibits high efficacy on adult flukes. [19]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trematoda</span> Class of parasitic flatworms

Trematoda is a class of flatworms known as flukes or trematodes. They are obligate internal parasites with a complex life cycle requiring at least two hosts. The intermediate host, in which asexual reproduction occurs, is usually a snail. The definitive host, where the flukes sexually reproduce, is a vertebrate. Infection by trematodes can cause disease in all five traditional vertebrate classes: mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, and fish.

<i>Fasciola hepatica</i> Species of fluke

Fasciola hepatica, also known as the common liver fluke or sheep liver fluke, is a parasitic trematode of the class Trematoda, phylum Platyhelminthes. It infects the livers of various mammals, including humans, and is transmitted by sheep and cattle to humans all over the world. The disease caused by the fluke is called fasciolosis or fascioliasis, which is a type of helminthiasis and has been classified as a neglected tropical disease. Fasciolosis is currently classified as a plant/food-borne trematode infection, often acquired through eating the parasite's metacercariae encysted on plants. F. hepatica, which is distributed worldwide, has been known as an important parasite of sheep and cattle for decades and causes significant economic losses in these livestock species, up to £23 million in the UK alone. Because of its relatively large size and economic importance, it has been the subject of many scientific investigations and may be the best-known of any trematode species. F. hepatica's closest relative is Fasciola gigantica. These two flukes are sister species; they share many morphological features and can mate with each other.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trematode life cycle stages</span>

Trematodes are parasitic flatworms of the class Trematoda, specifically parasitic flukes with two suckers: one ventral and the other oral. Trematodes are covered by a tegument, that protects the organism from the environment by providing secretory and absorptive functions.

<i>Fascioloides magna</i> Species of fluke

Fascioloides magna, also known as giant liver fluke, large American liver fluke or deer fluke, is trematode parasite that occurs in wild and domestic ruminants in North America and Europe. Adult flukes occur in the liver of the definitive host and feed on blood. Mature flukes measure 4 to 10 centimetres in length × 2 to 3.5 centimetres in width, and have an oval dorso-ventrally flattened body with oral and ventral sucker. The flukes are reddish-brown in colour and are covered by tegument. As with other digenean trematodes, the life cycle includes intramolluscan phase in snails. The parasite is currently distributed in wild ruminants in North America and Europe, including Austria, Canada, the Czech Republic, Croatia, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Serbia, Slovakia, and the United States.

<i>Paragonimus westermani</i> Species of fluke

Paragonimus westermani is the most common species of lung fluke that infects humans, causing paragonimiasis. Human infections are most common in eastern Asia and in South America. Paragonimiasis may present as a sub-acute to chronic inflammatory disease of the lung. It was discovered by Coenraad Kerbert (1849–1927) in 1878.

<i>Echinostoma</i> Genus of flukes

Echinostoma is a genus of trematodes (flukes), which can infect both humans and other animals. These intestinal flukes have a three-host life cycle with snails or other aquatic organisms as intermediate hosts, and a variety of animals, including humans, as their definitive hosts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paragonimiasis</span> Medical condition

Paragonimiasis is a food-borne parasitic disease caused by several species of lung flukes belonging to genus Paragonimus. Infection is acquired by eating crustaceans such as crabs and crayfishes which host the infective forms called metacercariae, or by eating raw or undercooked meat of mammals harboring the metacercariae from crustaceans.

<i>Dicrocoelium dendriticum</i> Species of fluke

Dicrocoelium dendriticum, the lancet liver fluke, is a parasite fluke that tends to live in cattle or other grazing mammals.

Metagonimoides oregonensis is a trematode, or fluke worm, in the family Heterophyidae. This North American parasite is found primarily in the intestines of raccoons, American minks, frogs in the genus Rana, and freshwater snails in the genus Goniobasis. It was first described in 1931 by E. W. Price. The parasite has a large distribution, from Oregon to North Carolina. Adult flukes vary in host range and morphology dependent on the geographical location. This results in different life cycles, as well as intermediate hosts, across the United States. On the west coast, the intermediate host is freshwater snails (Goniobasis), while on the east coast the intermediate host is salamanders (Desmognathus). The parasites on the west coast are generally much larger than on the east coast. For example, the pharynx as well as the body of the parasite are distinctly larger in Oregon than in North Carolina. The reverse pattern is observed on the east coast for uterine eggs, which are larger on the west coast. In snails, there is also a higher rate of infection in female snails than in males. Research on the life history traits of the parasites have been performed with hamsters and frogs as model species.

<i>Leucochloridium variae</i> Species of fluke

Leucochloridium variae, the brown-banded broodsac, is a species of trematode whose life cycle involves the alternate parasitic infection of certain species of snail and bird. While there is no external evidence of the worm's existence within the bird host, the infection of the snail host is visible when its eye stalks become grotesquely engorged with the parasite's brood sacs. These brood sacks pulsate and move to imitate insect larva, attracting the parasite's next host, insectivore birds. The bird rips off the eye stalk and eats it, thus becoming infected. Later on, the parasite's eggs are dropped with the bird's feces. Similar life-histories are found in other species of the genus Leucochloridium, including Leucochloridium paradoxum.

<i>Fasciolopsis</i> Genus of flukes

Fasciolopsis is a genus of trematodes. They are also known as giant intestinal flukes.

<i>Nanophyetus</i> Genus of flukes

Nanophyetus salmincola is a food-borne intestinal trematode parasite prevalent on the Pacific Northwest coast. The species may be the most common trematode endemic to the United States.

Echinostoma hortense is an intestinal fluke of the class Trematoda, which has been found to infect humans in East Asian countries such as Korea, China, and Japan. This parasite resides in the intestines of birds, rats and other mammals such as humans. While human infections are very rare in other regions of the world, East Asian countries have reported human infections up to about 24% of the population in some endemic sub-regions. E. hortense infections are zoonotic infections, which occurs from eating raw or undercooked freshwater fish. The primary disease associated with an E. hortense infection is called echinostomiasis, which is a general name given to diseases caused by Trematodes of the genus Echinostoma.

<i>Clinostomum marginatum</i> Species of fluke

Clinostomum marginatum is a species of parasitic fluke. It is commonly called the "yellow grub". It is found in many freshwater fish in North America, and no fish so far is immune to this parasite. It is also found in frogs. Clinostomum marginatum can also be found in the mouth of aquatic birds such as herons and egrets. They are commonly present in the esophagus of fish-eating birds and reptiles. Eggs of these trematodes are shed in the feces of aquatic birds and released into water. Aquatic birds become hosts of this parasite by ingesting infected freshwater fish. The metacercariae are found right beneath the skin or in the muscles of host fish.

Megalodiscus temperatus is a Digenean in the phylum Platyhelminthes. This parasite belongs to the Cladorchiidae family and is a common parasite located in the urinary bladder and rectum of frogs. The primary host is frogs and the intermediate hosts of Megalodiscus temeperatus are freshwater snails in the genus Helisoma.

<i>Philophthalmus gralli</i> Species of fluke

Philophthalmus gralli, commonly known as the Oriental avian eye fluke, parasitises the conjunctival sac of the eyes of many species of birds, including birds of the orders Galliformes and Anseriformes. In Brazil this parasite was reported in native Anseriformes species. It was first discovered by Mathis and Leger in 1910 in domestic chickens from Hanoi, Vietnam. Birds are definitive hosts and freshwater snail species are intermediate hosts. Human cases of philophthalmosis are rare, but have been previously reported in Europe, Asia, and America.

Paramphistomum is a genus of parasitic flatworms belonging to the digenetic trematodes. It includes flukes which are mostly parasitising livestock ruminants, as well as some wild mammals. They are responsible for the serious disease called paramphistomiasis, also known as amphistomosis, especially in cattle and sheep. Its symptoms include profuse diarrhoea, anaemia, lethargy, and often result in death if untreated. They are found throughout the world, and most abundantly in livestock farming regions such as Australia, Asia, Africa, Eastern Europe, and Russia.

Amphistomiasis is a parasitic disease of livestock animals, more commonly of cattle and sheep, and humans caused by immature helminthic flatworms belonging to the order Echinostomida. The term amphistomiasis is used for broader connotation implying the disease inflicted by members of Echinostomida including the family Paramphistomidae/Gastrodiscidae ; whereas paramphistomiasis is restricted to that of the members of the family Paramphistomidae only. G. discoides and Watsonius watsoni are responsible for the disease in humans, while most paramphistomes are responsible in livestock animals, and some wild mammals. In livestock industry the disease causes heavy economic backlashes due to poor production of milk, meat and wool.

<i>Metagonimus yokogawai</i> Species of fluke

Metagonimus yokogawai, or the Yokogawa fluke, is a species of a trematode, or fluke worm, in the family Heterophyidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gastropod-borne parasitic disease</span> Medical condition

Gastropod-borne parasitic diseases (GPDs) are a group of infectious diseases that require a gastropod species to serve as an intermediate host for a parasitic organism that can infect humans upon ingesting the parasite or coming into contact with contaminated water sources. These diseases can cause a range of symptoms, from mild discomfort to severe, life-threatening conditions, with them being prevalent in many parts of the world, particularly in developing regions. Preventive measures such as proper sanitation and hygiene practices, avoiding contact with infected gastropods and cooking or boiling food properly can help to reduce the risk of these diseases.

References

  1. ↑ Horak IG (1971). "Paramphistomiasis of domestic ruminants". Advances in Parasitology Volume 9. Vol. 9. pp. 33–72. doi:10.1016/s0065-308x(08)60159-1. ISBN   9780120317097. PMID   4927976.{{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  2. 1 2 3 Olsen OW (1974). Animal Parasites: Their Life Cycles and Ecology (3 ed.). Dover Publications, Inc., New York/University Park Press, Baltimore, US. pp. 273–276. ISBN   978-0486651262.
  3. ↑ Boray J (1959). "Studies on intestinal amphistomosis in cattle". Australian Veterinary Journal. 35 (6): 282–287. doi:10.1111/j.1751-0813.1959.tb08480.x.
  4. ↑ Panyarachun B, Sobhon P, Tinikul Y, Chotwiwatthanakun C, Anupunpisit V, Anuracpreeda P (2010). "Paramphistomum cervi: surface topography of the tegument of adult fluke". Experimental Parasitology. 125 (2): 95–99. doi:10.1016/j.exppara.2009.12.020. PMID   20045698.
  5. ↑ Lin, Yuching (2011). Liere, Heidi; Marino, John; OConnor, Barry; Mulcrone, Renee (eds.). "Paramphistomum cervi". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 27 February 2023.
  6. 1 2 Bowman DD, Georgi JR (2009). Georgis' Parasitology for Veterinarians (9 ed.). W.B. Saunders Company. p. 124. ISBN   978-1416044123.
  7. ↑ Duri PH (1978). "A preliminary note on the life cycle of Paramphistomum cotylophorum (Fisohoeder, 1901), and P. cervi (Schrank, 1790) (Trematoda: Paramphistomatidae)". Australian Veterinary Journal. 25 (9): 209. doi:10.1111/j.1751-0813.1949.tb04802.x.
  8. ↑ Altaif KI, Al-Abbassy SN, Al-Saqur IM, Jawad AK (1978). "Experimental studies on the suitability of aquatic snails as intermediate hosts for Paramphistomum cervi in Iraq". Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology. 72 (2): 151–155. doi:10.1080/00034983.1978.11719297. PMID   666386.
  9. ↑ Kraneburg W (1977). "Contribution to the biology and pathogenicity of domestic omasal leech Paramphistomum cervi. 1. Developmental stages in the free state and in the intermediary host". Berl Munch Tierarztl Wochenschr. 90 (16): 316–320. PMID   588222.
  10. ↑ Arru E, Deiana S, Muzzetto P (1970). "Intestinal paramphistomiasis in ruminants. Experimental infection of sheep with metacercariae and immature forms of Paramphistomum cervi (Schrank, 1790)". Rivista di Parassitologia. 31 (1): 33–42. PMID   5530163.
  11. ↑ Gupta B, Parshad V, Guraya SS (1984). "Maturation of Paramphistomum cervi in sheep in India". Veterinary Parasitology. 15 (3–4): 239–245. doi:10.1016/0304-4017(84)90075-x. PMID   6541837.
  12. ↑ Sanabria RE, Romero JR (2008). "Review and update of paramphistomosis". Helminthologia. 45 (2): 64–68. doi: 10.2478/s11687-008-0012-5 .
  13. ↑ Singh RP, Sahai BN, Jha GJ (1984). "Histopathology of the duodenum and rumen of goats during experimental infections with Paramphistomum cervi". Veterinary Parasitology. 15 (1): 39–46. doi:10.1016/0304-4017(84)90108-0. PMID   6541393.
  14. ↑ Bilqees Fm; Mirza S; Khatoon N (2011). Paramphistomum Cervi Infection and Liver Tissue Damage in Buffaloes. VDM Verlag. pp. 1–112. ISBN   978-3639325546.
  15. ↑ Georgiev B, Gruev A (1979). "Effectiveness of levamisole and oxyclozanide in paramphistomiasis in sheep and cattle". Vet Med Nauki. 16 (3): 45–51. PMID   524749.
  16. ↑ Gupta RP, Malik PD, Gautam OP (1981). "Efficacy of resorantel against paramphistomiasis in naturally infected sheep". Tropical Animal Health and Production. 13 (1): 35–36. doi:10.1007/bf02237884. PMID   7256870. S2CID   32264233.
  17. ↑ Rolfe PF, Boray JC (1987). "Chemotherapy of paramphistomosis in cattle". Australian Veterinary Journal. 64 (11): 328–332. doi:10.1111/j.1751-0813.1987.tb06060.x. PMID   3447575.
  18. ↑ Rolfe PF, Boray JC (1988). "Chemotherapy of paramphistomosis in sheep". Australian Veterinary Journal. 65 (5): 148–150. doi:10.1111/j.1751-0813.1988.tb14443.x. PMID   3401161.
  19. ↑ Saowakon N, Lorsuwannarat N, Changklungmoa N, Wanichanon C, Sobhon P (2013). "Paramphistomum cervi: the in vitro effect of plumbagin on motility, survival and tegument structure". Experimental Parasitology. 133 (2): 179–186. doi:10.1016/j.exppara.2012.11.018. PMID   23206952.
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