Porichthys notatus

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Porichthys notatus
Plainfin Midshipman.JPG
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Batrachoidiformes
Family: Batrachoididae
Genus: Porichthys
Species:
P. notatus
Binomial name
Porichthys notatus
Girard, 1854

Porichthys notatus is a species of batrachoid toadfish. It is a member of the midshipman genus, Porichthys, and is known by the common name plainfin midshipman. It is native to the eastern Pacific Ocean, where its distribution extends along the coast from Sitka, Alaska, to Magdalena Bay in southern Baja California. [2]

Contents

Description

This fish reaches up to 38 cm (15 in) in length. It is brownish to olive to iridescent purple dorsally, becoming lighter on the sides and yellowish/golden on the belly. Below the eye is a whitish patch and black crescent. A young individual may have a dark saddle-mark. P. notatus has wide pectoral fins and a narrow but rounded tail fin. [2]

Habitat and behavior

Except when breeding, the typical habitats for this marine fish are sandy and muddy bottoms from shallow water just below the tide to depths of 366 m (1,200 ft). [1] [2]

Its diet includes crustaceans and fish. [2] It is nocturnal, feeding at night and resting during the day, when it buries itself in the sand. [3]

Breeding

This fish is oviparous, and the male is dimorphic, designated as Type I and Type II. [4] The Type I male claims a nest site, which is generally under a rock in the intertidal zone. Once the female spawns, she leaves the eggs in the care of the male and departs. [5] One female can lay up to 400 eggs, and the number of eggs varies directly with body size. [6] The male may mate with a few females and end up with over 1000 eggs in his nest. [3] The eggs and larvae adhere to the wall of the nest. [2] The male tends them by fanning them, keeping the nest clean, and hydrating them if they begin to desiccate at low tide. He protects the larvae post-hatching until they reach their juvenile stage and leave the nest, about 45 days after fertilization. [5] Very occasionally, an egg will yield twin larvae. [7]

Type II male is much smaller in size than the Type I. [5] There are significantly fewer Type II males than Type I males within reproductively active populations of males, with a Type I to Type II ratio around 9:1. [4] In contrast to Type I males, Type II males do not defend nests or guard eggs, but rather sneak in to the nest sites of Type I males and fertilize the eggs there. [4] Type II males at times display behavior of fanning their own sperm into a nest containing a gravid female. [8] The ratio of gonad weight to body weight of Type II males is on average nine times greater than that of Type I males. [4] Type II males can be mistaken as gravid females as their abdomen distend due to enlarged testes. [4]

The conditions of the intertidal breeding habitat change regularly with the tide. A male that tends to his nest can become stranded as the tide recedes, even becoming beached completely out of the water. The fish tolerates this well. [5] It can breathe air. [9] [10] [2] Physiologically, it is well adapted to hypoxia, as well as hypercapnia. Even its sperm are quite functional in low-oxygen conditions. [5]

Bioluminescence

Drawing showing position of luminous organs and lateral line FMIB 51585 Luminous organs and lateral line of Midshipman, Porichthys notatus Girard Family Batrachoididae Monterey, California.jpeg
Drawing showing position of luminous organs and lateral line

P. notatus is bioluminescent. It has photophores in the skin of its head and much of its body. One fish has over 700 photophores, each about a millimeter wide. They contain luciferin. Norepinephrine activates them, producing a distinct fluorescent green glow. [11] The fish is only luminescent during courtship. [12] It may however, play a role in predator avoidance, as well. In the juvenile, photophores point ventrally, directing their illumination downwards. This helps to shadow the fish in a silhouette that might make it harder for predators to see. [13]

Not all individuals express this trait. There are two main populations of the species, a southern population found as far north as San Francisco, and a second population extending to the northern reaches of its range. [2] Fish of the southern population are bioluminescent, but most northern fish are not, [11] particularly those from the Puget Sound. [12] The nonluminescent fish lack luciferin in their photophores. [11] In experiments, nonluminescent fish can be made luminescent by dosing them orally or by injection with luciferin obtained from the luminescent ostracod crustacean Vargula hilgendorfii . This crustacean has a similar, but not identical, luciferin compound which can apparently function in the photophores of the fish, as well. It is thought that the fish obtains its luciferin in the wild by eating this type of crustacean, perhaps a relative such as Vargula tsujii , and that the nonluminescent northern population does not have any of these available to them. [11]

Vocalization

Both male and female of the species produce vocalizations. The female may produce a brief grunting sound, usually in agonistic encounters. The Type II male performs similar behaviors. The Type I male is much more vocal, both in conflict situations and in courtship. He utters long strings of shorter grunts and growls while fighting, but his courtship call is more of a prolonged hum. [14] He may produce this sound for over an hour at a time, reaching frequencies near 100 Hz. [15] When a male makes the sound, gravid females respond by moving toward him. [16]

The fish produces the sound using the muscles of its modified swim bladder. [15] It receives the sound in its saccule, a sensory organ in the inner ear. During the breeding season, hormones induce the microscopic anatomy of the female's saccules to change in such a way that she can better sense the harmonics of the male's calls. [14]

People in some areas are very familiar with the sound of this fish. Where there are many breeding males, the sound of many simultaneous long, loud underwater courtship calls can be clearly heard on land. In parts of Washington [17] and in the San Francisco Bay Area there are noisemaking populations. The fish is notorious in Sausalito, California, where a community of people live on houseboats. The resident population of the fish becomes very obvious during the breeding season, when it spends the night vocalizing so loudly it keeps the houseboat residents awake. [18] Its calling is most intense between midnight and 6:00 a.m. [19] Despite its annoying behavior the fish inspired an affectionate local tribute in Sausalito, the Humming Toadfish Festival. [18]

The sound of the vocalization has been likened to a chorus of kazoos, B-29s flying in formation, [18] an amplifier, a didgeridoo, "a drone of bees or maybe even the chanting of monks," [20] and "an orchestra full of mournful, rasping oboes." [21]

Predators

Western gulls and other birds will catch and eat plainfin midshipman Western Gull with Plain Fin Midshipman (Porichthys notatus).jpg
Western gulls and other birds will catch and eat plainfin midshipman

This fish is an important prey for the bald eagle in some coastal areas, being the most common food provided to eaglets by their parents in one study on Vancouver Island. This is a concern, however, because this fish has been found to contain relatively high levels of contaminants, such as dioxin. It is also prey for the northwestern crow, the glaucous-winged gull, and the great blue heron. [22] It is eaten by seals and sea lions. [2]

P. notatus is host to the parasitic copepods Lepeophtheirus remiopsis and Hamaticolax prolixus . [23]

Conservation

P. notatus is not a threatened species. It is widespread and apparently not in decline. [1]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bioluminescence</span> Emission of light by a living organism

Bioluminescence is the production and emission of light by living organisms. It is a form of chemiluminescence. Bioluminescence occurs widely in marine vertebrates and invertebrates, as well as in some fungi, microorganisms including some bioluminescent bacteria, and terrestrial arthropods such as fireflies. In some animals, the light is bacteriogenic, produced by symbiotic bacteria such as those from the genus Vibrio; in others, it is autogenic, produced by the animals themselves.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Damselfish</span> Group of fishes

Damselfish are those within the subfamilies Abudefdufinae, Chrominae, Lepidozyginae, Pomacentrinae, and Stegastinae within the family Pomacentridae. Most species within this group are relatively small, with the largest species being about 30cm in length. Most damselfish species exist only in marine environments, but a few inhabit brackish or fresh water. These fish are found globally in tropical, subtropical, and temperate waters.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Calliope hummingbird</span> Smallest species of hummingbird in North America

The calliope hummingbird is the smallest bird native to the United States and Canada. It has a western breeding range mainly from California to British Columbia, and migrates to the Southwestern United States, Mexico, and Central America for its wintering grounds. The calliope hummingbird is the smallest known long-distance bird migrant, completing migrations twice per year of some 9,000 km (5,600 mi).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Batrachoididae</span> Family of fishes

Batrachoididae is the only family in the ray-finned fish order Batrachoidiformes. Members of this family are usually called toadfish or frogfish: both the English common name and scientific name refer to their toad-like appearance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ostracod</span> Class of crustaceans

Ostracods, or ostracodes, are a class of the Crustacea, sometimes known as seed shrimp. Some 33,000 species have been identified, grouped into 7 valid orders. They are small crustaceans, typically around 1 mm (0.04 in) in size, but varying from 0.2 to 30 mm in the case of the marine Gigantocypris. The largest known freshwater species is Megalocypris princeps, which reach 8mm in length. In most cases, their bodies are flattened from side to side and protected by a bivalve-like valve or "shell" made of chitin, and often calcium carbonate. The family Entocytheridae and many planktonic forms do not have calcium carbonate. The hinge of the two valves is in the upper (dorsal) region of the body. Ostracods are grouped together based on shell and soft part morphology, and molecular studies have not unequivocally supported the group's monophyly. They have a wide range of diets, and the class includes carnivores, herbivores, scavengers and filter feeders, but most ostracods are deposit feeders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oyster toadfish</span> Species of fish

The oyster toadfish, Opsanus tau, also known as the oyster toad, ugly toad, oyster cracker, oyster catcher, and bar dog, is a Northwest Atlantic species of fish of the family Batrachoididae. The maximum length of this toadfish is 43.2 cm (17 in), but they infrequently surpass 38 cm (15 in). The world record size for this species is 19.2 inches which is 48.76 cm. They are generally yellowish with a pattern of brown oblique bars. The species can live in poor conditions and needs little food to live. They can be found near the shore from Maine to Florida.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Midshipman fish</span> Genus of fishes

A midshipman fish is any species of toadfish belonging to the genus Porichthys. Historically, there have been two common names. Porichthys refers to the well developed pores on the fish, and this led to the common name "Porous Catfish". The other common name, "Midshipman" is based on the pattern of button-like luminous spots (photophores) which resemble the buttons on the uniforms of young naval officers known as midshipmen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gopher rockfish</span> Species of fish

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Firefly squid</span> Species of cephalopod also known as the sparkling enope squid

The firefly squid, also commonly known as the sparkling enope squid or hotaru-ika in Japan, is a species of squid in the family Enoploteuthidae. W. scintillans is the sole species in the monotypic genus Watasenia.

A photocyte is a cell that specializes in catalyzing enzymes to produce light (bioluminescence). Photocytes typically occur in select layers of epithelial tissue, functioning singly or in a group, or as part of a larger apparatus. They contain special structures called photocyte granules. These specialized cells are found in a range of multicellular animals including ctenophora, coelenterates (cnidaria), annelids, arthropoda and fishes. Although some fungi are bioluminescent, they do not have such specialized cells.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fringefin lanternshark</span> Species of shark

The fringefin lanternshark is a shark of the family Etmopteridae found in the western central Atlantic from Texas to Florida, northern Gulf of Mexico, and Mexico. It is endemic to this area. It is a deep water shark and is found about 220 to 915 meters below the surface, on the upper continental slopes of the Gulf. E. schultzi is a small shark, about 27–30 cm long and feeds on squid. It is also bioluminescent, which counter-illuminates it and helps with intraspecific interaction. Due to its limited range and the difficulty of collecting deep water species, it has not been evaluated by the IUCN Red List, but due to recent oil spills in the Gulf of Mexico, it is likely that fringefin lanternsharks have decreased in population.

<i>Padogobius</i> Genus of fishes

Padogobius is a genus of fish in the family Gobiidae, the gobies. They are native to fresh waters of southern Europe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Two-spotted goby</span> Species of fish

The two-spotted goby is a species of goby native to marine and brackish waters of the eastern Atlantic Ocean where it can be found from the Faeroes and Norway to the northwestern coast of Spain. It has also been recorded from Estonia though records from the Mediterranean Sea are uncertain. They are common on all coasts of the United Kingdom. This species can reach a length of 6 centimetres (2.4 in) TL.

In enzymology, a Cypridina-luciferin 2-monooxygenase (EC 1.13.12.6) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vargulin</span> Chemical compound

Vargulin, also called Cypridinid luciferin, Cypridina luciferin, or Vargula luciferin, is the luciferin found in the ostracod Cypridina hilgendorfii, also named Vargula hilgendorfii. These bottom dwelling ostracods emit a light stream into water when disturbed presumably to deter predation. Vargulin is also used by the midshipman fish, Porichthys.

<i>Vargula hilgendorfii</i> Species of seed shrimp

Vargula hilgendorfii, sometimes called the sea-firefly and one of three bioluminescent species known in Japan as umi-hotaru (海蛍), is a species of ostracod crustacean. It is the only member of genus Vargula to inhabit Japanese waters; all other members of its genus inhabit the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and waters off the coast of California. V. hilgendorfii was formerly more common, but its numbers have fallen significantly.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Counter-illumination</span> Active camouflage using light matched to the background

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Reproduction and vocalization in midshipman fish are closely interlinked. Mating in midshipman fish depends on auditory communication, the production and reception of sound signals. Males produce several different vocalizations, while females only make grunts in non-breeding situations.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Collette, B.; Acero, A.; Betancur, R.; Cotto, A.; Rojas, P. (2010). "Porichthys notatus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2010: e.T183724A8165351. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2010-3.RLTS.T183724A8165351.en . Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Froese, R. and D. Pauly, Eds. Porichthys notatus. FishBase. 2011.
  3. 1 2 Mensinger, A. F. and J. F. Case. (1991). Bioluminescence maintenance in juvenile Porichthys notatus. Biol Bull 181 181-88.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Bass, Andrew (1992-04-01). "Dimorphic male brains and alternative reproductive tactics in a vocalizing fish". Trends in Neurosciences. 15 (4): 139–145. doi: 10.1016/0166-2236(92)90356-D . ISSN   0166-2236. PMID   1374972. S2CID   31850449.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Craig, P. M., et al. (2013). Coping with aquatic hypoxia: How the plainfin midshipman (Porichthys notatus) tolerates the intertidal zone. Environ Biol Fish. In press.
  6. ↑ DeMartini, Edward E. (1990-09-19). "Annual Variations in Fecundity, Egg Size and Condition of the Plainfin Midshipman (Porichthys notatus)". Copeia. 1990 (3): 850–855. doi:10.2307/1446452. JSTOR   1446452.
  7. ↑ Stephens, R. R. (1973). Twinning in Porichthys notatus Girard. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 102(4) 846.
  8. ↑ Bass, Andrew H. (1993-06-01). "From brains to behaviour: hormonal cascades and alternative mating tactics in teleost fishes". Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries. 3 (2): 181–186. Bibcode:1993RFBF....3..181B. doi:10.1007/BF00045231. ISSN   1573-5184. S2CID   114817.
  9. ↑ Martin, K. L. M. (1993). "Aerial release of CO2 and respiratory exchange ratio in intertidal fishes out of water". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 37 (2): 189–196. Bibcode:1993EnvBF..37..189M. doi:10.1007/BF00000594. S2CID   34804496.
  10. ↑ Martin, K. L. M.; Bridges, C. R. (1998). "Respiration in water and air". In Horn, M. H.; Martin, K. L. M.; Chotkowski, M. A. (eds.). Intertidal Fishes: Life in Two Worlds. Elsevier. pp. 54–78. ISBN   978-008053493-0.
  11. 1 2 3 4 Thompson, E. M., et al. (1988). Induction of bioluminescence capability in the marine fish, Porichthys notatus, by Vargula (crustacean) (14C)luciferin and unlabelled analogues. J. Exp. Biol. 137 39-51.
  12. 1 2 Tsuji, F. I., et al. (1972). Bioluminescence in the marine teleost, Porichthys notatus, and its induction in a non-luminous form by Cypridina (ostracod) luciferin. (Letter). Nature 237 515-16.
  13. ↑ Harper, R. D. and J. F. Case. (1999). Disruptive counterillumination and its anti-predatory value in the plainfish midshipman Porichthys notatus. Marine Biology 134 529-40.
  14. 1 2 Sisneros JA (April 2007). "Saccular potentials of the vocal plainfin midshipman fish, Porichthys notatus". Journal of Comparative Physiology A. 193 (4): 413–24. doi:10.1007/s00359-006-0195-5. PMC   2582148 . PMID   17143623.
  15. 1 2 Forbes JG, Morris HD, Wang K (April 2006). "Multimodal imaging of the sonic organ of Porichthys notatus, the singing midshipman fish". Magnetic Resonance Imaging. 24 (3): 321–31. doi:10.1016/j.mri.2005.10.036. PMID   16563962.
  16. ↑ Zeddies DG, Fay RR, Alderks PW, Shaub KS, Sisneros JA (May 2010). "Sound source localization by the plainfin midshipman fish, Porichthys notatus". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 127 (5): 3104–13. Bibcode:2010ASAJ..127.3104Z. doi:10.1121/1.3365261. PMID   21117759.
  17. ↑ Hum along with male plainfin midshipman fish. Morning Edition. National Public Radio. July 29, 2009.
  18. 1 2 3 Bishop, K. Sausalito Journal; Voice of the turtle? No, toadfish love song. New York Times. June 26, 1989.
  19. ↑ Sounds of the Plainfin Midshipman. Underwater Sound from the RTC Pier. Underwater Acoustics Research Group. San Francisco State University.
  20. ↑ Lewis, T. 'Singing' fish hums to attract mates. LiveScience. February 19, 2013.
  21. ↑ Perlman, D. Hormones fine-tune the humming toadfish: High levels of estrogen found in the most responsive females. San Francisco Chronicle. July 19, 2004.
  22. ↑ Elliott, K. H., et al. (2003). Bald Eagles, Haliaeetus leucocephalus, feeding on spawning plainfin midshipman, Porichthys notatus, at Crescent Beach, British Columbia. The Canadian Field-Naturalist 117(4) 601-4.
  23. ↑ Bailly, N. (2013). Porichthys notatus Girard, 1854. In: Froese, R. and D. Pauly, Eds. (2013). FishBase. World Register of Marine Species. Accessed on 5 June 2013.
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