Sikorsky HH-60 Pave Hawk

Last updated

HH-60 / MH-60 Pave Hawk
HH-60W Jolly Green II
HH-60G Pave Hawk helicopter operated by the 56th Rescue Squadron.jpg
U.S. Air Force HH-60G Pave Hawk
Role Combat search and rescue helicopter
Manufacturer Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation
Introduction1982 [1]
StatusIn service
Primary users United States Air Force
Republic of Korea Air Force
Number built112 (HH-60G Pave Hawk) [2]
Developed from Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk

The Sikorsky MH-60/HH-60 Pave Hawk is a four-blade, twin-engine, medium-lift utility military helicopter manufactured by Sikorsky Aircraft. The HH-60 Pave Hawk and its successor the HH-60W Jolly Green II are combat rescue helicopters, though in practice they often serve humanitarian and peacetime disaster rescue. It is a derivative of the UH-60 Black Hawk and incorporates the US Air Force PAVE electronic systems program. The HH-60/MH-60 is a member of the Sikorsky S-70 family.

Contents

The MH-60G Pave Hawk's primary mission is insertion and recovery of special operations personnel, while the HH-60G Pave Hawk's core mission is recovery of personnel under hostile conditions, including combat search and rescue. Both versions conduct day or night operations into hostile environments. Because of its versatility, the HH-60G may also perform peacetime operations such as civil search and rescue, emergency aeromedical evacuation (MEDEVAC), disaster relief, international aid and counter-drug activities.

The USAF HH/MH-60G are in the process of being replaced by the new HH-60W Jolly Green II starting in the 2020s, with both types being operating during that time. The HH-60P is operated by South Korea.

Design and development

In 1981, the U.S. Air Force chose the UH-60A Black Hawk to replace its HH-3E Jolly Green Giant helicopters. After acquiring some UH-60s, the Air Force began upgrading each with an air refueling probe and additional fuel tanks in the cabin. The machine guns were changed from 7.62 mm (0.308 in) M60s to .50 caliber (12.7 mm) XM218s. These helicopters were referred to as "Credible Hawks" and entered service in 1987. [3]

Afterwards, the Credible Hawks and new UH-60As were upgraded and designated MH-60G Pave Hawk. These upgrades were to be done in a two-step process. However, funding allowed only 16 Credible Hawks to receive the second step equipment. These helicopters were allocated to special operations use. The remaining 82 Credible Hawks received the first step upgrade equipment and were used for combat search and rescue. In 1991, these search and rescue Pave Hawks were redesignated HH-60G. [3] [4]

The Pave Hawk is a highly modified version of the Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk. [5] It features an upgraded communications and navigation suite that includes an integrated inertial navigation/global positioning/Doppler navigation systems, satellite communications, secure voice, and Have Quick communications. The term PAVE stands for Precision Avionics Vectoring Equipment.

An HH-60G at the 2007 Paris Air Show Sikorsky HH60.jpg
An HH-60G at the 2007 Paris Air Show

All HH-60Gs have an automatic flight control system, night vision goggles lighting and forward looking infrared system that greatly enhances night low-level operations. Additionally, some Pave Hawks have color weather radar and an engine/rotor blade anti-ice system that gives the HH-60G an all-weather capability. Pave Hawk mission equipment includes a retractable in-flight refueling probe, internal auxiliary fuel tanks, two crew-served (or pilot-controlled) 7.62 mm miniguns or .50-caliber machine guns and an 8,000 pound (3,600 kg) capacity cargo hook. To improve air transportability and shipboard operations, all HH-60Gs have folding rotor blades.

Pave Hawk combat enhancements include a radar warning receiver, infrared jammer and a flare/chaff countermeasure dispensing system. HH-60G rescue equipment includes a hoist capable of lifting a 600-pound (270 kg) load from a hover height of 200 feet (60 m), and a personnel locating system. A number of Pave Hawks are equipped with an over-the-horizon tactical data receiver that is capable of receiving near real-time mission update information. [6]

Replacement

HH-60W in June 2022 USAF HH-60W 19-14499 FDK MD5.jpg
HH-60W in June 2022

In 1999, the USAF identified a need for a helicopter with improved range, speed, and cabin space. An options analysis was completed in 2002 and funding for 141 aircraft under the "personnel recovery vehicle" program began in 2004. In 2005, it was renamed CSAR-X, meaning combat search and rescue. Sikorsky entered the HH-92 Superhawk, Lockheed Martin entered the VH-71 Kestrel, and Boeing entered the HH-47 Chinook. The HH-47 won the competition in November 2006, but the award was cancelled after successful protests from both rival competitors. A Request for Proposals (RFP) was reissued in 2007, but protested again before proposals were received, leading to a second cancellation. [7] In March 2010, the USAF announced a recapitalization plan to return its 99-aircraft inventory to 112 airframes, incrementally replacing aging HH-60Gs; a secondary plan to replace 13 attrition HH-60s, seven of which were lost in combat since 2001, was also initiated. The USAF deferred secondary combat search and rescue requirements calling for a larger helicopter. A UH-60M-based version was offered as a replacement. [8] [9] [10]

On 22 October 2012, the USAF issued an RFP for up to 112 Combat Rescue Helicopters (CRH) to replace the HH-60G with the primary mission of personnel recovery from hostile territory; other missions include civil search and rescue, disaster relief, casualty and medical evacuation. [11] It had to have a combat radius of 225 nmi (259 mi; 417 km), a payload of 1,500 lb (680 kg), and space for up to four stretchers. The AgustaWestland AW101 was one entrant. [12] By December 2012, competitors AgustaWestland, EADS, Boeing, and Bell Helicopter had withdrawn amid claims that the RFP favored Sikorsky and did not reward rival aircraft's capabilities. [13] [14] The USAF argued that the competition was not written to favor Sikorsky, and that the terms were clear as to the capabilities they wanted and could afford. Sikorsky was the only bidder remaining, with subcontractor Lockheed Martin supplying mission equipment and the electronic survivability suite. Sikorsky and the USAF extensively evaluated the proposed CRH-60, a variant of the MH-60 special operations helicopter; [15] the CRH-60 differed from the MH-60 by its greater payload and cabin capacity, wider rotor blades, and better hover capability. [7]

In September 2013, the initial USAF FY 2015 budget proposal would have cancelled the CRH program due to sequestration budget cuts, instead retaining the existing HH-60 fleet. [16] [17] Congress allocated over $300 million to the program in FY 2014, with $430 million to be moved from other areas through FY 2019 to finance it. [18] On 26 June 2014, the USAF awarded Sikorsky and Lockheed Martin a $1.3 billion contract for the first four aircraft, with 112 total to be procured for a total of up to $7.9 billion. [19] Five more are to be delivered by 2020 and the order is to be completed by 2029. [20] On 24 November 2014, the Air Force officially designated the UH-60M-derived CRH the HH-60W. [1] It first flew on 17 May 2019. [21] In February 2020, the HH-60W was named the "Jolly Green II" by the USAF. [22] The 41st Rescue Squadron received the first two HH-60W helicopters on 5 November 2020. [23]

Operational history

An HH-60G about to refuel from a USAF HC-130P Helicopter aerial refueling.jpg
An HH-60G about to refuel from a USAF HC-130P
Sri Lankan relief workers unload vegetables from an HH-60G during an Operation Unified Assistance mission Kadena HH-60G at Sri Lanka.jpg
Sri Lankan relief workers unload vegetables from an HH-60G during an Operation Unified Assistance mission

As of 2015, the U.S. Air Force HH-60G Pave Hawk was operated by the Air Combat Command (ACC), U.S. Air Forces in Europe (USAFE), Pacific Air Forces (PACAF), Air Education and Training Command (AETC), the Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) and the Air National Guard (ANG). Some HH-60Gs are also operated by the Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC) for flight tests. [6]

During Operation Desert Storm, Pave Hawks provided combat search and rescue coverage for coalition air forces in western Iraq, Saudi Arabia, coastal Kuwait and the Persian Gulf. They also provided emergency evacuation coverage for U.S. Navy SEAL teams landing on the Kuwaiti coast before the invasion. [6]

The Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC) got rid of its MH-60Gs in 1991, redesignating them as HH-60Gs and giving them to Air Combat Command (ACC) and ACC-gained Air Force Reserve Command and Air National Guard units. [3] [4]

On 29 October 1992, a MH-60G Pave Hawk crashed in the Great Salt Lake of Utah about 100 yards north of Antelope Island during a training exercise in bad weather. Twelve members of the Army's 75th Ranger Regiment and the Air Force's 1st Special Operations Wing died in the accident. The pilot, Air Force Maj. Stephan J. Laushine, was the only survivor. [24]

During Operation Allied Force, the Pave Hawk provided continuous combat search and rescue coverage for NATO air forces, and recovered two U.S. Air Force pilots who were isolated behind enemy lines. [6]

In March 2000, three Pave Hawks deployed to Hoedspruit Air Force Base in South Africa to support international flood relief operations in Mozambique. The HH-60Gs flew 240 missions in 17 days and delivered more than 160 tons of humanitarian relief supplies. [6]

In early 2005, Air Force Pave Hawks also took part in a massive humanitarian relief effort to help in Sri Lankan victims of the tsunami. [25] In the fall of 2005, Pave Hawks from various Air Force commands helped rescue thousands of stranded survivors of Hurricane Katrina. [6]

Pave Hawks operated during Operation Iraqi Freedom, Operation New Dawn, and Operation Enduring Freedom, supporting Army and Marine Corps ground combat operations and standby search and rescue support for U.S. and coalition fixed-wing combat aircraft. [6]

On 15 March 2018, a CSAR HH-60G crashed near the Iraqi city of al-Qa'im, killing all seven on board. [26]

Variants

Exercises with a HH-60 Pave Hawk in 2010 48th Rescue Squadron - HH-60 Pave Hawk - 2010.jpg
Exercises with a HH-60 Pave Hawk in 2010

Operators

An Republic of Korea Air Force HH-60P conducting mountain rescue training in April 2011. 2011nyeon 4weol gonggun hanmiyeonhab saenghwan mic sanag gujohunryeon(5) (7499907622).jpg
An Republic of Korea Air Force HH-60P conducting mountain rescue training in April 2011.

Flag of South Korea.svg  Republic of Korea

Flag of the United States (23px).png  United States

Specifications (HH-60G)

Sikorsky HH-60 Pavehawk orthographical image.svg

Data from USAF 2008 Almanac [5] USAF fact sheet, [6]

General characteristics

Performance

Armament

Avionics

See also

Related development

Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era

Related lists

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk</span> Series of military utility transport helicopters

The Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk is a four-blade, twin-engine, medium-lift utility military helicopter manufactured by Sikorsky Aircraft. Sikorsky submitted the S-70 design for the United States Army's Utility Tactical Transport Aircraft System (UTTAS) competition in 1972. The Army designated the prototype as the YUH-60A and selected the Black Hawk as the winner of the program in 1976, after a fly-off competition with the Boeing Vertol YUH-61.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk</span> Naval helicopter series of the H-60/S-70 family

The Sikorsky SH-60/MH-60 Seahawk is a twin turboshaft engine, multi-mission United States Navy helicopter based on the United States Army UH-60 Black Hawk and a member of the Sikorsky S-70 family. The most significant modifications are the folding main rotor blades and a hinged tail to reduce its footprint aboard ships.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sikorsky MH-53</span> American military helicopter

The Sikorsky MH-53 Pave Low series is a retired long-range special operations and combat search and rescue (CSAR) helicopter for the United States Air Force. The series was upgraded from the HH-53B/C, variants of the Sikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallion. The HH-53 "Super Jolly Green Giant" was initially developed to replace the HH-3E "Jolly Green Giant". The U.S. Air Force's MH-53J/M fleet was retired in September 2008.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sikorsky H-60</span> Index of articles associated with the same name

The Sikorsky H-60 is a family of military helicopters built by Sikorsky Aircraft.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sikorsky S-70</span> Family of medium transport/utility military helicopters

The Sikorsky S-70 is an American medium transport/utility helicopter family manufactured by Sikorsky Aircraft. It was developed for the United States Army in the 1970s, winning a competition to be designated the UH-60 Black Hawk and spawning a large family in U.S. military service. New and improved versions of the UH-60 have been developed since. Civilian versions, and some military versions, are produced under various S-70 model designations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">129th Rescue Wing</span> Military unit

The 129th Rescue Wing is a unit of the California Air National Guard, stationed at Moffett Federal Airfield in Sunnyvale, California. The wing is equipped with the HC-130J Combat King II and the HH-60G Pave Hawk helicopter. If activated to federal service, the wing is assigned to the United States Air Force's Air Combat Command (ACC).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United States Air Force Combat Rescue School</span> Military unit

The United States Air Force Combat Rescue School, was an organization of the United States Air Force.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sikorsky S-61R</span> Helicopter used in transport or search and rescue

The Sikorsky S-61R is a twin-engine helicopter used in transport or search and rescue roles. A developed version of the S-61/SH-3 Sea King, the S-61R was also built under license by Agusta as the AS-61R. The S-61R served in the United States Air Force as the CH-3C/E Sea King and the HH-3E Jolly Green Giant, and with the United States Coast Guard as the HH-3F, nicknamed "Pelican".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">58th Special Operations Wing</span> Military unit

The 58th Special Operations Wing is a combat unit of the United States Air Force stationed at Kirtland Air Force Base, New Mexico. The 58 SOW is part of the Air Education and Training Command (AETC) Nineteenth Air Force.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">920th Rescue Wing</span> Military unit

The 920th Rescue Wing is part of the Air Reserve Component (ARC) of the United States Air Force. The wing is assigned to the Tenth Air Force of the Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">101st Rescue Squadron</span> Military unit

The 101st Rescue Squadron is a unit of the New York Air National Guard 106th Rescue Wing stationed at Francis S. Gabreski Air National Guard Base, Westhampton Beach, New York. The squadron is equipped with the HH-60G Pave Hawk helicopter, configured for combat search and rescue operations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">20th Special Operations Squadron</span> Military unit

The 20th Special Operations Squadron is part of the 27th Special Operations Wing at Cannon Air Force Base, New Mexico. It operates Bell Boeing CV-22 Ospreys on special operations missions. It traces its history back to the activation of the 20th Observation Squadron (Light) at Savannah, Georgia, in March 1942.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">41st Rescue Squadron</span> Military unit


The 41st Rescue Squadron is part of the 347th Rescue Group at Moody Air Force Base, Georgia. It operates HH-60W Jolly Green II aircraft conducting search and rescue missions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">56th Rescue Squadron</span> Military unit

The 56th Rescue Squadron is part of the 31st Fighter Wing, Aviano Air Base, Italy. The squadron was previously assigned to the 48th Fighter Wing at RAF Lakenheath, England. It operates HH-60G Pave Hawk helicopters conducting search and rescue missions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">66th Rescue Squadron</span> Military unit

The 66th Rescue Squadron is an inactive squadron of the United States Air Force that was last stationed at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada, where it operated HH-60 Pave Hawk helicopters conducting search and rescue and combat search and rescue missions. At the time of its inactivation in 2023, it was a geographically separated unit of the 563rd Rescue Group, 355th Wing, at Davis–Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">55th Rescue Squadron</span> US Air Force unit

The 55th Rescue Squadron is an aviation unit of the United States Air Force. It operates the Sikorsky HH-60W Jolly Green II helicopter and provides rapidly deployable combat search and rescue forces to theater commanders worldwide. 55th used to use the HH-60G Pave Hawk until switching to the HH-60W Jolly Green II. They tactically employ the HH-60W helicopter and its crew in hostile environments to recover downed aircrew and isolated personnel during day, night, or marginal weather conditions. The squadron also conducts military operations other than war including civil search and rescue, disaster relief, international aid, emergency medical evacuation, and counter-drug activities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">301st Rescue Squadron</span> Military unit

The 301st Rescue Squadron is an Air Force Reserve Command unit, part of the 920th Rescue Wing at Patrick Space Force Base, Florida. The squadron operates the HH-60G Pave Hawk helicopter, conducting both peacetime and combat search and rescue missions. As a reserve unit, it is operationally-gained by the Air Combat Command (ACC).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">305th Rescue Squadron</span> Military unit

The 305th Rescue Squadron is part of the 943rd Rescue Group at Davis–Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona, a subordinate of the 920th Rescue Wing at Patrick Space Force Base, Florida. It operates Sikorsky HH-60G Pave Hawk and HH-60W Jolly Green II aircraft conducting peacetime and combat search and rescue missions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">563rd Rescue Group</span> US Air Force unit

The 563rd Rescue Group is a United States Air Force unit stationed at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona. The group also controls the rescue squadrons at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada. It is assigned to the 355th Wing. The group directs flying operations dedicated to personnel recovery and is part of Air Combat Command. The group was activated under its current designation at Davis-Monthan in 2003 to command rescue units in the western United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">34th Weapons Squadron</span> Military unit

The 34th Weapons Squadron is a United States Air Force unit. It is assigned to the USAF Weapons School, stationed at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada.

References

Notes
  1. 1 2 3 USAF toasts Whiskey designation for CRH fleet Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine - Flightglobal.com, 28 November 2014
  2. ↑ "HH-60G Pave Hawk total production".
  3. 1 2 3 Eden, Paul. "Sikorsky H-60 Black Hawk/Seahawk", Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. Amber Books, 2004. ISBN   1-904687-84-9.
  4. 1 2 Bishop, Chris. Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk. Osprey, 2008. ISBN   978-1-84176-852-6.
  5. 1 2 Young, Susan H.H., Staff Editor (May 2008). ""HH-60G Pave Hawk", 2008 USAF Almanac – Gallery of USAF Weapons" (PDF). Air Force Magazine . 91 (5). Air Force Association: 155–156. ISSN   0730-6784. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 February 2009.{{cite journal}}: |first= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "HH-60G Pave Hawk". United States Air Force. 4 February 2004. Archived from the original on 8 January 2014. Retrieved 8 January 2014.
  7. 1 2 Sikorsky eyes federal budget amid uncertainty over combat rescue helicopter Archived 20 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine - Flightglobal.com, 19 December 2013
  8. ↑ Trimble, Stephen. "USAF abandons large helicopter for rescue mission, proposes buying 112 UH-60Ms" Archived 10 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine . Flight International. 24 February 2010.
  9. ↑ USAF HH-60 Personnel Recovery Recapitalization Program (HH-60 Recap) sources sought notice. fbo.gov, Released" 23 March, Revised: 8 April 2010.
  10. ↑ Reed, John. "UH-60M Offered For USAF's New CSAR Program". Defense News, 15 July 2010.
  11. ↑ Air Force Releases RFP for Next Search And Rescue Helicopter Archived 28 December 2012 at the Wayback Machine Af.mil, 22 October 2012.
  12. ↑ US Air Force moves forward with CSAR procurement Archived 19 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine Flightglobal.com, 31 October 2012
  13. ↑ Most contractors opt out of Air Force chopper bids Archived 24 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine Reuters, 11 December 2012.
  14. ↑ Sikorsky last bidder standing in USAF's combat rescue helicopter battle Archived 22 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine Flightglobal.com, 12 December 2012.
  15. ↑ U.S. Air Force delays rescue helicopter contract award Archived 24 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine - Reuters.com, 2 August 2013
  16. ↑ USAF Weighs Scrapping KC-10, A-10 Fleets Defensenews.com, 15 September 2013.
  17. ↑ Aide: Congress Will Fight To Fund Combat Rescue Helo - Defensenews.com, 18 February 2014
  18. ↑ USAF to issue contract to Sikorsky for rescue helicopter Archived 6 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine - Flightglobal.com, 4 March 2014
  19. ↑ Sikorsky, Lockheed awarded Combat Rescue Helo contract Archived 1 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine - Militarytimes.com, 26 June 2014
  20. ↑ Sikorsky awarded up to $7.9 billion rescue helicopter deal Archived 1 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine - Flightglobal.com, 27 June 2014
  21. ↑ Update: Sikorsky HH-60W Combat Rescue Helicopter makes first flight
  22. ↑ US Air Force names HH-60W Combat Rescue Helicopter "Jolly Green II"
  23. ↑ "USAF's first HH-60W Jolly Green II arrives at Moody AFB". Air Force. 6 November 2020. Retrieved 20 June 2023.
  24. ↑ "MEMORIAL TO HAIL 12 VICTIMS OF '92 COPTER CRASH". Deseret News. 12 August 1994.
  25. ↑ Gempis, Master Sgt. Val. "Kadena Airmen help Sri Lanka tsunami victims" Archived 17 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine . Air Force Print News, 18 January 2005.
  26. ↑ Sullivan, Eileen (16 March 2018). "All 7 U.S. Troops Aboard Helicopter Killed in Crash in Iraq". The New York Times. Retrieved 22 August 2018.
  27. 1 2 DoD 4120-15L, Model Designation of Military Aerospace Vehicles Archived 30 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine . US DoD, 12 May 2004.
  28. ↑ Warwick, Graham (27 September 2008). "Level Playing Field?". Flight International. Reed Business Information. Archived from the original on 8 December 2008. Retrieved 8 October 2008.
  29. ↑ "South Korea to upgrade special ops UH/HH-60 helicopters".
  30. ↑ "HH-60P image". Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 20 April 2010.
  31. ↑ "Area 51 Has Its Own Unique Fleet Of HH-60U Ghost Hawk Helicopters". thedrive.com. 1 December 2019. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
  32. 1 2 "World Air Forces 2014" (PDF). Flightglobal Insight. 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 February 2014. Retrieved 10 September 2014.
  33. ↑ "33d Rescue Squadron". af.mil. Archived from the original on 4 April 2015. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
  34. ↑ "41st Rescue Squadron". af.mil. Archived from the original on 4 April 2015. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
  35. ↑ "55th Rescue Squadron". af.mil. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
  36. ↑ "56th Rescue Squadron". af.mil. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
  37. ↑ "66th Rescue Squadron". af.mil. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
  38. ↑ "101st Rescue Squadron". af.mil. Archived from the original on 15 October 2014. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
  39. ↑ "129th Rescue Squadron". af.mil. Archived from the original on 14 November 2014. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
  40. ↑ "210th Rescue Squadron". af.mil. Archived from the original on 13 January 2009. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
  41. ↑ "301st Rescue Squadron". af.mil. Archived from the original on 18 August 2016. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
  42. ↑ "305th Rescue Squadron". af.mil. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
  43. ↑ "413th Flight Test Squadron". af.mil. Archived from the original on 27 October 2014. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
  44. ↑ "512th Rescue Squadron". af.mil. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
Bibliography
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.