Stress testing

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Stress testing is a form of deliberately intense or thorough testing, used to determine the stability of a given system, critical infrastructure or entity. It involves testing beyond normal operational capacity, often to a breaking point, in order to observe the results.

Contents

Reasons can include:

Reliability engineers often test items under expected stress or even under accelerated stress in order to determine the operating life of the item or to determine modes of failure. [1]

The term "stress" may have a more specific meaning in certain industries, such as material sciences, and therefore stress testing may sometimes have a technical meaning – one example is in fatigue testing for materials.

In animal biology, there are various forms of biological stress and biological stress testing, such as the cardiac stress test in humans, often administered for biomedical reasons. In exercise physiology, training zones are often determined in relation to metabolic stress protocols, quantifying energy production, oxygen uptake, or blood chemistry regimes.

Computing

This section is an excerpt from Stress testing (computing).[ edit ]
In computing, stress testing (sometimes called torture testing) can be applied to either hardware or software. It it used to determine the maximum capability of a computer system and is often used for purposes such as scaling for production use and ensuring reliability and stability. [2] Stress tests typically involve running a large amount of resource-intensive processes until the system either crashes or nearly does so.

Materials

This section is an excerpt from Fatigue testing.[ edit ]
IABG Fatigue test of the Airbus A380 wing. The wing was tested for a total of 47500 flights which is 2.5 times the number of flights in 25 years of operation. Each 16 hour flight took 11 minutes to simulate on the fatigue test rig. IABG Test Setup A380 Dresden bent wing.jpg
IABG Fatigue test of the Airbus A380 wing. The wing was tested for a total of 47500 flights which is 2.5 times the number of flights in 25 years of operation. Each 16 hour flight took 11 minutes to simulate on the fatigue test rig.

Fatigue testing is a specialised form of mechanical testing that is performed by applying cyclic loading to a coupon or structure. These tests are used either to generate fatigue life and crack growth data, identify critical locations or demonstrate the safety of a structure that may be susceptible to fatigue. Fatigue tests are used on a range of components from coupons through to full size test articles such as automobiles and aircraft.

Fatigue tests on coupons are typically conducted using servo hydraulic test machines which are capable of applying large variable amplitude cyclic loads. [4] Constant amplitude testing can also be applied by simpler oscillating machines. The fatigue life of a coupon is the number of cycles it takes to break the coupon. This data can be used for creating stress-life or strain-life curves. The rate of crack growth in a coupon can also be measured, either during the test or afterward using fractography. Testing of coupons can also be carried out inside environmental chambers where the temperature, humidity and environment that may affect the rate of crack growth can be controlled.

Because of the size and unique shape of full size test articles, special test rigs are built to apply loads through a series of hydraulic or electric actuators. Actuators aim to reproduce the significant loads experienced by a structure, which in the case of aircraft, may consist of manoeuvre, gust, buffet and ground-air-ground (GAG) loading. A representative sample or block of loading is applied repeatedly until the safe life of the structure has been demonstrated or failures occur which need to be repaired. Instrumentation such as load cells, strain gauges and displacement gauges are installed on the structure to ensure the correct loading has been applied. Periodic inspections of the structure around critical stress concentrations such as holes and fittings are made to determine the time detectable cracks were found and to ensure any cracking that does occur, does not affect other areas of the test article. Because not all loads can be applied, any unbalanced structural loads are typically reacted out to the test floor through non-critical structure such as the undercarriage.

Airworthiness standards generally require a fatigue test to be carried out for large aircraft prior to certification to determine their safe life. [5] Small aircraft may demonstrate safety through calculations, although typically larger scatter or safety factors are used because of the additional uncertainty involved.

Critical infrastructure

This section is an excerpt from Critical infrastructure § Stress testing.[ edit ]

Critical infrastructure (CI) such as highways, railways, electric power networks, dams, port facilities, major gas pipelines or oil refineries are exposed to multiple natural and human-induced hazards and stressors, including earthquakes, landslides, floods, tsunami, wildfires, climate change effects or explosions. These stressors and abrupt events can cause failures and losses, and hence, can interrupt essential services for the society and the economy. [6] Therefore, CI owners and operators need to identify and quantify the risks posed by the CIs due to different stressors, in order to define mitigation strategies [7] and improve the resilience of the CIs. [8] [9] Stress tests are advanced and standardised tools for hazard and risk assessment of CIs, that include both low-probability high-consequence (LP-HC) events and so-called extreme or rare events, as well as the systematic application of these new tools to classes of CI.

Stress testing is the process of assessing the ability of a CI to maintain a certain level of functionality under unfavourable conditions, while stress tests consider LP-HC events, which are not always accounted for in the design and risk assessment procedures, commonly adopted by public authorities or industrial stakeholders. A multilevel stress test methodology for CI has been developed in the framework of the European research project STREST, [10] consisting of four phases: [11]

Phase 1: Preassessment, during which the data available on the CI (risk context) and on the phenomena of interest (hazard context) are collected. The goal and objectives, the time frame, the stress test level and the total costs of the stress test are defined.

Phase 2: Assessment, during which the stress test at the component and the system scope is performed, including fragility [12] and risk [13] analysis of the CIs for the stressors defined in Phase 1. The stress test can result in three outcomes: Pass, Partly Pass and Fail, based on the comparison of the quantified risks to acceptable risk exposure levels and a penalty system.

Phase 3: Decision, during which the results of the stress test are analyzed according to the goal and objectives defined in Phase 1. Critical events (events that most likely cause the exceedance of a given level of loss) and risk mitigation strategies are identified.

Phase 4: Report, during which the stress test outcome and risk mitigation guidelines based on the findings established in Phase 3 are formulated and presented to the stakeholders.

This stress-testing methodology has been demonstrated to six CIs in Europe at component and system level: [14] an oil refinery and petrochemical plant in Milazzo, Italy; a conceptual alpine earth-fill dam in Switzerland; the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline in Turkey; part of the Gasunie national gas storage and distribution network in the Netherlands; the port infrastructure of Thessaloniki, Greece; and an industrial district in the region of Tuscany, Italy. The outcome of the stress testing included the definition of critical components and events and risk mitigation strategies, which are formulated and reported to stakeholders.

Finance

This section is an excerpt from Stress test (financial).[ edit ]

In finance, a stress test is an analysis or simulation designed to determine the ability of a given financial instrument or financial institution to deal with an economic crisis. Instead of doing financial projection on a "best estimate" basis, a company or its regulators may do stress testing where they look at how robust a financial instrument is in certain crashes, a form of scenario analysis. They may test the instrument under, for example, the following stresses:

  • What happens if unemployment rate rises to v% in a specific year?
  • What happens if equity markets crash by more than w% this year?
  • What happens if GDP falls by x% in a given year?
  • What happens if interest rates go up by at least y%?
  • What if half the instruments in the portfolio terminate their contracts in the fifth year?
  • What happens if oil prices rise by z%?
  • What happens if there is a polar vortex event in a particular region?

This type of analysis has become increasingly widespread, and has been taken up by various governmental bodies (such as the PRA in the UK or inter-governmental bodies such as the European Banking Authority (EBA) and the International Monetary Fund) as a regulatory requirement on certain financial institutions to ensure adequate capital allocation levels to cover potential losses incurred during extreme, but plausible, events. The EBA's regulatory stress tests have been referred to as "a walk in the park" by Saxo Bank's Chief Economist. [15]

This emphasis on adequate, risk adjusted determination of capital has been further enhanced by modifications to banking regulations such as Basel II. Stress testing models typically allow not only the testing of individual stressors, but also combinations of different events. There is also usually the ability to test the current exposure to a known historical scenario (such as the Russian debt default in 1998 or 9/11 attacks) to ensure the liquidity of the institution. In 2014, 25 banks failed in stress test conducted by EBA.

Medical

Cardiac

This section is an excerpt from Cardiac stress test.[ edit ]

A cardiac stress test (also referred to as a cardiac diagnostic test, cardiopulmonary exercise test, or abbreviated CPX test) is a cardiological test that measures the heart's ability to respond to external stress in a controlled clinical environment. The stress response is induced by exercise or by intravenous pharmacological stimulation.

Cardiac stress tests compare the coronary circulation while the patient is at rest with the same patient's circulation during maximum cardiac exertion, showing any abnormal blood flow to the myocardium (heart muscle tissue). The results can be interpreted as a reflection on the general physical condition of the test patient. This test can be used to diagnose coronary artery disease (also known as ischemic heart disease) and assess patient prognosis after a myocardial infarction (heart attack).

Exercise-induced stressors are most commonly either exercise on a treadmill or pedalling a stationary exercise bicycle ergometer. [16] The level of stress is progressively increased by raising the difficulty (steepness of the slope on a treadmill or resistance on an ergometer) and speed. People who cannot use their legs may exercise with a bicycle-like crank that they turn with their arms, [17] or may be given a medication to induce cardiac stress. [18] Once the stress test is completed, the patient generally is advised to not suddenly stop activity but to slowly decrease the intensity of the exercise over the course of several minutes.

The test administrator or attending physician examines the symptoms and blood pressure response. To measure the heart's response to the stress the patient may be connected to an electrocardiogram (ECG); in this case the test is most commonly called a cardiac stress test but is known by other names, such as exercise testing, stress testing treadmills, exercise tolerance test, stress test or stress test ECG. Alternatively a stress test may use an echocardiogram for ultrasonic imaging of the heart (in which case the test is called an echocardiography stress test or stress echo), or a gamma camera to image radioisotopes injected into the bloodstream (called a nuclear stress test). [19]

Childbirth

This section is an excerpt from Contraction stress test.[ edit ]

A contraction stress test (CST) is performed near the end of pregnancy (34 weeks' gestation) to determine how well the fetus will cope with the contractions of childbirth. The aim is to induce contractions and monitor the fetus to check for heart rate abnormalities using a cardiotocograph. A CST is one type of antenatal fetal surveillance technique.

During uterine contractions, fetal oxygenation is worsened. Late decelerations in fetal heart rate occurring during uterine contractions are associated with increased fetal death rate, growth retardation and neonatal depression. [20] [21] This test assesses fetal heart rate in response to uterine contractions via electronic fetal monitoring. Uterine activity is monitored by tocodynamometer. [22]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Premature ventricular contraction</span> Skipped beat with ventricular origin

A premature ventricular contraction (PVC) is a common event where the heartbeat is initiated by Purkinje fibers in the ventricles rather than by the sinoatrial node. PVCs may cause no symptoms or may be perceived as a "skipped beat" or felt as palpitations in the chest. PVCs do not usually pose any danger.

Heart rate is the frequency of the heartbeat measured by the number of contractions of the heart per minute. The heart rate can vary according to the body's physical needs, including the need to absorb oxygen and excrete carbon dioxide, but is also modulated by numerous factors, including genetics, physical fitness, stress or psychological status, diet, drugs, hormonal status, environment, and disease/illness as well as the interaction between and among these factors. It is usually equal or close to the pulse measured at any peripheral point.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Echocardiography</span> Medical imaging technique of the heart

An echocardiography, echocardiogram, cardiac echo or simply an echo, is an ultrasound of the heart. It is a type of medical imaging of the heart, using standard ultrasound or Doppler ultrasound.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fatigue (material)</span> Initiation and propagation of cracks in a material due to cyclic loading

In materials science, fatigue is the initiation and propagation of cracks in a material due to cyclic loading. Once a fatigue crack has initiated, it grows a small amount with each loading cycle, typically producing striations on some parts of the fracture surface. The crack will continue to grow until it reaches a critical size, which occurs when the stress intensity factor of the crack exceeds the fracture toughness of the material, producing rapid propagation and typically complete fracture of the structure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Critical infrastructure</span> Infrastructure important to national security

Critical infrastructure, or critical national infrastructure (CNI) in the UK, describes infrastructure considered essential by governments for the functioning of a society and economy and deserving of special protection for national security.

Fetal distress, also known as non-reassuring fetal status, is a condition during pregnancy or labor in which the fetus shows signs of inadequate oxygenation. Due to its imprecision, the term "fetal distress" has fallen out of use in American obstetrics. The term "non-reassuring fetal status" has largely replaced it. It is characterized by changes in fetal movement, growth, heart rate, and presence of meconium stained fluid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cardiotocography</span> Technical means of recording the fetal heartbeat and the uterine contractions during pregnancy

Cardiotocography (CTG) is a technique used to monitor the fetal heartbeat and the uterine contractions during pregnancy and labour. The machine used to perform the monitoring is called a cardiotocograph.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Treadmill</span> Exercise machine

A treadmill is a device generally used for walking, running, or climbing while staying in the same place. Treadmills were introduced before the development of powered machines to harness the power of animals or humans to do work, often a type of mill operated by a person or animal treading the steps of a treadwheel to grind grain. In later times, treadmills were used as punishment devices for people sentenced to hard labour in prisons. The terms treadmill and treadwheel were used interchangeably for the power and punishment mechanisms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cardiac stress test</span> Measures the hearts ability to respond to external stress in a controlled clinical environment

A cardiac stress test is a cardiological test that measures the heart's ability to respond to external stress in a controlled clinical environment. The stress response is induced by exercise or by intravenous pharmacological stimulation.

Reliability engineering is a sub-discipline of systems engineering that emphasizes the ability of equipment to function without failure. Reliability describes the ability of a system or component to function under stated conditions for a specified period of time. Reliability is closely related to availability, which is typically described as the ability of a component or system to function at a specified moment or interval of time.

A nonstress test (NST) is a screening test used in pregnancy to assess fetal status by means of the fetal heart rate and its responsiveness. A cardiotocograph is used to monitor the fetal heart rate and presence or absence of uterine contractions. The test is typically termed "reactive" or "nonreactive".

A contraction stress test (CST) is performed near the end of pregnancy to determine how well the fetus will cope with the contractions of childbirth. The aim is to induce contractions and monitor the fetus to check for heart rate abnormalities using a cardiotocograph. A CST is one type of antenatal fetal surveillance technique.

Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) refers to the ability of the circulatory and respiratory systems to supply oxygen to skeletal muscles during sustained physical activity. Scientists and researchers use CRF to assess the functional capacity of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems. These functions include ventilation, perfusion, gas exchange, vasodilation, and delivery of oxygen to the body's tissues. As these body's functions are vital to an individual's health, CRF allows observers to quantify an individual's morbidity and mortality risk as a function of cardiorespiratory health. There are a multitude of ways scientists have developed to measure and estimate an individual's cardiovascular and respiratory fitness. One such way is using an exercise stress test, either treadmill or cycling, that entails using a graded-intensity aerobic stress to assess whether or not an individual can maintain physical exertion up to a heart rate of 85% of their age-predicted maximum. Another method of estimating CRF entails using formulas, derived from extrapolated regressive analyses, to predict a theoretical level of CRF. These formulas take into consideration an individual's age, sex, BMI, substance use, relative levels of physical activity, and pathologic co-morbidites. In 2016, Nauman and Nes et al. demonstrated the added and unique utility of estimated cardiorespiratory fitness (eCRF) in predicting risk of cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality. The emergence of a gold-standard method to quantify CRF began in 1923-1924. A.V. Hill et al. proposed a multifactorial relationship between the maximum rate of oxygen uptake by body tissues, termed VO2 max, and intensity of physical activity dependent upon and limited by functional capacities of an individual's cardiovascular and respiratory systems. This proposal served as an impetus for a multitude of studies demonstrating a relationship between VO2 max and cardiovascular disease (CVD) and all-cause mortality. While many methods of estimating CRF exist, each has been validated as a vital tool for predicting morbidity and mortality risk. In fact, in 2016, the American Heart Association published an official scientific statement advocating that CRF be categorized as a clinical vital sign and should be routinely assessed as part of clinical practice.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Myocardial perfusion imaging</span> Nuclear medicine imaging method

Myocardial perfusion imaging or scanning is a nuclear medicine procedure that illustrates the function of the heart muscle (myocardium).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vaginal delivery</span> Delivery through the vagina

A vaginal delivery is the birth of offspring in mammals through the vagina. It is the most common method of childbirth worldwide. It is considered the preferred method of delivery, with lower morbidity and mortality than Caesarean sections (C-sections).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cardiac monitoring</span>

Cardiac monitoring generally refers to continuous or intermittent monitoring of heart activity to assess a patient's condition relative to their cardiac rhythm. Cardiac monitoring is usually carried out using electrocardiography, which is a noninvasive process that records the heart's electrical activity and displays it in an electrocardiogram. It is different from hemodynamic monitoring, which monitors the pressure and flow of blood within the cardiovascular system. The two may be performed simultaneously on critical heart patients. Cardiac monitoring for ambulatory patients is known as ambulatory electrocardiography and uses a small, wearable device, such as a Holter monitor, wireless ambulatory ECG, or an implantable loop recorder. Data from a cardiac monitor can be transmitted to a distant monitoring station in a process known as telemetry or biotelemetry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bruce protocol</span>

The Bruce protocol is a diagnostic test used in the evaluation of cardiac function, developed by Robert A. Bruce.

Uterine hyperstimulation or hypertonic uterine dysfunction is a potential complication of labor induction. This is displayed as Uterine tachysystole- the contraction frequency numbering more than five in a 10-minute time frame or as contractions exceeding more than two minutes in duration. Uterine hyperstimulation may result in fetal heart rate abnormalities, uterine rupture, or placental abruption. It is usually treated by administering terbutaline.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prolonged labor</span> Medical condition

Prolonged labor is the inability of a woman to proceed with childbirth upon going into labor. Prolonged labor typically lasts over 20 hours for first time mothers, and over 14 hours for women that have already had children. Failure to progress can take place during two different phases; the latent phase and active phase of labor. The latent phase of labor can be emotionally tiring and cause fatigue, but it typically does not result in further problems. The active phase of labor, on the other hand, if prolonged, can result in long term complications.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fatigue testing</span> Determination of a material or structures resiliency against cyclic loading

Fatigue testing is a specialised form of mechanical testing that is performed by applying cyclic loading to a coupon or structure. These tests are used either to generate fatigue life and crack growth data, identify critical locations or demonstrate the safety of a structure that may be susceptible to fatigue. Fatigue tests are used on a range of components from coupons through to full size test articles such as automobiles and aircraft.

References

  1. ↑ Nelson, Wayne B., (2004), Accelerated Testing - Statistical Models, Test Plans, and Data Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, New York, ISBN   0-471-69736-2
  2. ↑ "Keep it stable, stupid! How to stress-test your PC hardware". PCWorld. Retrieved 2023-03-11.
  3. ↑ "Test programme and certification" . Retrieved 2020-02-27.
  4. ↑ "High-Rate Test Systems" (PDF). MTS. Retrieved 26 June 2019.
  5. ↑ "FAA PART 23—Airworthiness Standards: Normal Category Airplanes" . Retrieved 26 June 2019.
  6. ↑ Pescaroli, Gianluca; Alexander, David (2016-05-01). "Critical infrastructure, panarchies and the vulnerability paths of cascading disasters". Natural Hazards. 82 (1): 175–192. doi: 10.1007/s11069-016-2186-3 . ISSN   1573-0840.
  7. ↑ Mignan, A.; Karvounis, D.; Broccardo, M.; Wiemer, S.; Giardini, D. (March 2019). "Including seismic risk mitigation measures into the Levelized Cost Of Electricity in enhanced geothermal systems for optimal siting". Applied Energy. 238: 831–850. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.01.109 .
  8. ↑ Linkov, Igor; Bridges, Todd; Creutzig, Felix; Decker, Jennifer; Fox-Lent, Cate; Kröger, Wolfgang; Lambert, James H.; Levermann, Anders; Montreuil, Benoit; Nathwani, Jatin; Nyer, Raymond (June 2014). "Changing the resilience paradigm". Nature Climate Change. 4 (6): 407–409. Bibcode:2014NatCC...4..407L. doi:10.1038/nclimate2227. ISSN   1758-6798.
  9. ↑ Argyroudis, Sotirios A.; Mitoulis, Stergios A.; Hofer, Lorenzo; Zanini, Mariano Angelo; Tubaldi, Enrico; Frangopol, Dan M. (April 2020). "Resilience assessment framework for critical infrastructure in a multi-hazard environment: Case study on transport assets" (PDF). Science of the Total Environment. 714: 136854. Bibcode:2020ScTEn.714m6854A. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.136854. PMID   32018987.
  10. ↑ "STREST-Harmonized approach to stress tests for critical infrastructures against natural hazards. Funded from the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme FP7/2007-2013, under grant agreement no. 603389. Project Coordinator: Domenico Giardini; Project Manager: Arnaud Mignan, ETH Zurich".
  11. ↑ Esposito Simona; Stojadinović Božidar; Babič Anže; Dolšek Matjaž; Iqbal Sarfraz; Selva Jacopo; Broccardo Marco; Mignan Arnaud; Giardini Domenico (2020-03-01). "Risk-Based Multilevel Methodology to Stress Test Critical Infrastructure Systems". Journal of Infrastructure Systems. 26 (1): 04019035. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)IS.1943-555X.0000520.
  12. ↑ Pitilakis, K.; Crowley, H.; Kaynia, A.M., eds. (2014). SYNER-G: Typology Definition and Fragility Functions for Physical Elements at Seismic Risk. Geotechnical, Geological and Earthquake Engineering. Vol. 27. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7872-6. ISBN   978-94-007-7871-9. S2CID   133078584.
  13. ↑ Pitilakis, K.; Franchin, P.; Khazai, B.; Wenzel, H., eds. (2014). SYNER-G: Systemic Seismic Vulnerability and Risk Assessment of Complex Urban, Utility, Lifeline Systems and Critical Facilities. Geotechnical, Geological and Earthquake Engineering. Vol. 31. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-8835-9. ISBN   978-94-017-8834-2. S2CID   107566163.
  14. ↑ Argyroudis, Sotirios A.; Fotopoulou, Stavroula; Karafagka, Stella; Pitilakis, Kyriazis; Selva, Jacopo; Salzano, Ernesto; Basco, Anna; Crowley, Helen; Rodrigues, Daniela; Matos, José P.; Schleiss, Anton J. (2020). "A risk-based multi-level stress test methodology: application to six critical non-nuclear infrastructures in Europe" (PDF). Natural Hazards. 100 (2): 595–633. doi:10.1007/s11069-019-03828-5. ISSN   1573-0840. S2CID   209432723.
  15. ↑ Cosgrave, Jenny (Oct 27, 2014). "Central bankers back stress tests as criticism swirls". CNBC. Retrieved March 5, 2015.
  16. ↑ "Exercise stress test". MedlinePlus : U.S. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 31 May 2013.
  17. ↑ Terry, Sarah (August 16, 2013). "Treadmill Test for Heart Problems". Livestrong Foundation . Retrieved May 30, 2014.
  18. ↑ Akinpelu, David (17 October 2021). "Pharmacologic Stress Testing: Background, Indications, Contraindications". Medscape Reference. Retrieved 26 March 2022.
  19. ↑ "Exercise stress test". Texas Heart Institute. July 2015. Retrieved 23 August 2015.
  20. ↑ Ronald S. Gibbs; et al., eds. (2008). Danforth's obstetrics and gynecology (10th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 161. ISBN   9780781769372.
  21. ↑ Alan H. DeCherney; T. Murphy Goodwin; et al., eds. (2007). Current diagnosis & treatment : Obstetrics & gynecology (10th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp.  255. ISBN   978-0-07-143900-8.
  22. ↑ III, Frances Talaska Fischbach, Marshall Barnett Dunning (2009). A manual of laboratory and diagnostic tests (8th ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 1030–31. ISBN   9780781771948.
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