Members have a tradition of direct person-to-person oral witness when communicating on spiritual life.[4] The church does not have official headquarters or publications. It does not publish any doctrinal statements, or communicate beliefs through mass communication media (e.g. books or radio) beyond person-to-person direct communication.[4] According to Piepkorn (1972), members are reluctant to discuss their fellowship except with bonafide seekers, and other inquiries regarding beliefs are referred to the Bible.[4] Its hymnbook and various other materials for internal use are produced by outside publishers and printing firms.[13] Printed invitations for its open gospel services are the only public written materials.
Discrete congregation
The community is private and largely unknown by the outside world. Limited information is contributed to by a number of factors:
The United Kingdom criminalized religious belief that did not confirm state church creeds and authority, which was punishable by death in England, Scotland, and Ireland until tolerance Acts in the 19th century. Civic liberties for Christians not members of the state-endorsed churches were restricted until subsequent acts later in the mid 19th century. Property and educational rights were restricted by law until the late 19th century.[14]
The church does not publish doctrinal statements, only affirming the truth of the New Testament.[8][15]
High tension is retained between the church’s primativism and institutional churches.[8][22][23]
Doctrinal and traditional differences between the church’s first century primativism and post-3rd century creedal churches have historically led to heretication on both sides.[8][24][25]
Media framing, sensationalization of privacy, pejorative labelling, and stigmatization may deter public engagement.[26]
Publicity is shunned due to fear "worldly attention" would bring vanity and other characteristics, impeding their pursuit of humility.[8]
When open-air meetings were conducted, drum lines and physical attacks were used to disrupt their meetings.[27]
Evidence basis
Due to the oral tradition, direct sources are not available from the church as a whole, or members of the church.[4] Due to the decentralized, distributed nature, there is no single representative, or where from to share representative statements. The church has made no publications since its inception.[4] Current members do not participate in interviews or publications.[4]
Secondary sources
A historical analysis on the early Christian church and Christian primitivism reviews the history and documented features of the church.[3]
Scholarship
Reliable scholarship
A brief study in a Lutheran theological journal (Concordia Theologica Monthly) reviews the movement from a Lutheran perspective.[4]
A brief study in a peer-reviewed Roman Catholic theological Journal reviews the movement from a Roman Catholic perspective.[11]
Dissertations
A sociology masters thesis by a former member reports online disaffiliate views through studying former members reasons for leaving and other compilations of exit letters.[8]
News organizations
Editorial and opinion commentary
Multiple news organizations have commented on the movement.[28]
Biased and opinionated sources
Literature commentaries are provided by ex-members who left the church from a polemical perspective.[19]
Questionable and self-published sources
Questionable and Self-Published Sources are cited in this article, and the most commonly cited sources of information on this topic: these are not considered reliable sources per Wikipedia guidelines.
Religious critics, including an evangelical Christian apologists ministry, wrote a polemical commented on the community from an Evangelical Protestant perspective.[29]
Chapman (1993), Daniel (1993), and Daniel (1996) self-published exit letters from dissafiliates.[8]
An ex-member, Kropp-Ehrig, wrote a book[19] and founded multiple websites after disafiliating, with commentary from a polemical perspective, self-publishing a selection of letters attributed as privately sent between members, and a journal from a worker in Ireland at the end of the 19th century.[9]
An accompanying website archives a selection of newspaper articles[28] and self-published content, including a letter responding to doctrinal and historical inquiry by an Irish worker from 1906.[30]
Research and Information Services, Inc, self-publishes commentary from a polemical perspective by anonymous authors, uncited summaries, a compilation of select quotes, linking to books published by ex-members.[31]
Descriptions of the church are derived from these commentaries and letters.
Social, moral, and cultural issues
Non-conformity and anti-materialism
Social commentary in the late 19th and early 20th centuries centred on ministers’ lay ministry recruitment, anti-institutionalism, non-conformity to state churches, and criticism of salaried clergy and solicited collections.[4][9][19] Churches condemned the ministers methods of apostolic poverty and not taking collections; “a great burst of public indignation”, including drum lines and physical attacks attempted to disrupt their open air meetings.[27]
Women as Go-Preachers
Women have participated in joining the itinerant ministry since its inception, which was criticized by public in the early 20th century, when state churches did not allow ordination of women to preach.[32] This included a publicized defamation campaign against the church led by a man whose daughters had left home to become itinerant preachers; his campaign publicized that women joining the Go-Preachers was immoral.[32] A court case ruled these claims were libel, and required the father to acknowledge he had made false claims and offer a public apology.[32] In 1906, a father whose daughters became Go-Preachers was found guilty of destroying their portable mission hall.[33]
Privacy, Christian separation, and radical humility
Adherents shun publicity to avoid attention bringing effects of vanity and ego,[8] disturbing their peace,[19] or differences becoming divisions.[19] They make no publications, and have upheld this since their inception.[4]
Negative media portrayal
In the late 20th and early 21st century, publication of several articles and books, increased news coverage, and the appearance of the Internet have re-introduced the private community to the public with increased external commentary and sociocultural critiques. Cimino (1999) quotes Mayer, saying the introduction of the internet primarily led to negative and alternative representations from critics on the internet, which are more prevalent than authentic and representative information. Cimino says there has been a loosening up of strict requirements of “Two by Twos,” and that there was internal reform in “The Way”.[34]
Reasons for disaffiliation
Jones (2013), a former member, conducted an unpublished Sociology Masters Thesis survey among former members on disaffiliate websites on reasons for leaving.[8] The top three reasons were not believing doctrine, church origins, and feeling like they were living a lie due to their lifestyle outside of the church.[8] Disaffiliate typologies were (a) the dense social network of workers, family members, or friends was perceived as no longer socially plausible, including tension as a non-believer among believers, and the desire to appear and behave more “worldly”, (b) negative social tagging of the church, or (c) a crisis of faith.[8] Former member McConnell-Conti said to Radio New Zealand she considered the church “highly controlling” because she believed she would not have salvation if she left the church for “the world.”[35]
Child safety
In the 21st century, news organizations have focused on abuse cases, reporting accountability, hesitancy to make publications, and challenges in access to services due to the community not being a formal institution.[36][37] In 2024, the United States FBI posted an investigation after allegations of childhood sexual abuse (CSA), seeking survivors or individuals with knowledge of abuse and/or criminal behavior.[38]
Prevalence
Internationally, among the estimated 1-4 million members,[10] there have been ~2000 allegations since the 1980’s against 910 individuals[39] (as of 6/10/2024), resulting in 52 individuals convicted of abuse who were associated with the church.[40] The prevalence of CSA offenders is therefore estimated at 0.02-0.091% alleged perpetrators and 0.0013%-0.0052% convicted perpetrators among total membership. Approximately ~2000 members (0.05-0.67% of membership given variable population estimates of 300,000 to 4 million[10]) have reported CSA between 1980-2025.[41] In the general public of North America, 95% of CSA cases are never reported to authorities based on studies in North America.[42] Factoring in this general assumption[speculation?] that 95% of cases went unreported and population estimates of 300,000-4 million, this would estimate 1-13% of membership being affected by CSA. 16% of all girls and 8% of all boys in the general public of the general population of North America experience CSA.[42] The population estimates for the church varies by orders of magnitude, creating significant variability in denominators and statistics.[10]
Demographics
According to statistics maintained by an independent accountability and reporting not-for-profit, 40% of allegations from CSA survivors in the community name ministers as the offender, 10% of allegations name elders, 50% of allegations name members, and less than 2% of allegations name female perpetrators.[41]
Prevention and supports
MinistrySafe training courses,[43] mandated reporter training,[12] code of conducts,[44] counseling networks,[45] external accountability initiatives,[46][47][48] survivor funding systems,[49] and support groups and support networks[50] have been developed to prevent abuse and protect child safety, ensure criminals are prosecuted accountably, and support survivors of abuse in the community.
Independently professionally designed code of conducts are available that include education for overseers on immediate and appropriate action (i.e. temporary suspension or permanent dismissal from ministry) when there are allegations or charges of CSA against a worker, having open conversations about CSA, and conducting background checks on members who volunteer for the work.[44] They also provide education for workers on CSA topics to discuss with families, reporting resources, and support resources for survivors.[44] They recommend point people in each region for CSA information.[44] Education is also included for all members.[44]
Abuse cases
Australia
In April 2019, the Australian current affairs television show 60 Minutes interviewed child sex abuse victims of Australian workers and members. Noel Harvey, Ernie Barry, Chris Chandler, Cecil James Blyth and Greg Aylett were named as having been convicted of sex crimes. 60 Minutes said that victims who complained faced shunning while even convicted perpetrators were protected.[51][52] Former abuse victims and victim advocate Jillian Hishon have criticized the group's response for lacking impartiality and accountability.[53][54] Survivor advocate Laura McConnell-Conti has criticised the Australian Two by Twos for not participating in the National Redress Scheme (NRS), which is a voluntary government-facilitated process for institutions, requiring formally joining the NRS as a formal organization.[36] The NRS emerged as a result of the Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse, and provides survivors with compensation if it occurred in an official institution.[36]
In 2023, the Two by Twos' Australasian overseers issued two letters to members acknowledging incidents of abuse overseas, condemning child abuse and encouraging victims to report abuse to the police.[citation needed] The overseers also announced they would establish an anonymous advisory group to develop child-safe policies and manage the group's response to historical child sexual abuse.[citation needed] In May 2024, the group's Australasian overseers launched a website with information about their response to historical child sexual abuse and a written apology to victims.[55]
New Zealand
In New Zealand, among 60 ministers and 2,500 members, there has been one repeat offender in the ministry (1.67%), convicted by admission and removed from the ministry, and 14 members (0.56%) told not to attend meetings on the basis of prior conviction or investigation.[37][56] In September 2024, Radio New Zealand (RNZ) reported that New Zealand Police were assisting the FBI investigation by investigating a former New Zealand minister for historical abuse.[37] William Stephen Easton was convicted by admission to 55 child sex abuse charges over three decades against young boys.[56] RNZ quotes Hishon, a former member of the church who runs a hotline for Australasian victims, and says “To date, they are all historical child sexual abuse, so they've happened years ago. So these people who have abused, some are still in the church, so some of the abusers are still in the church, they're still attending meetings, some of them, some have been removed, others have already passed away.”[37] RNZ quotes Religious expert, professor emeritus of history at Massey University, Peter Lineham, notes “this is a very vulnerable group of people.”.[37]
Radio New Zealand quoted a New Zealand Overseer Dean saying “ We acknowledge that these matters were not always appropriately addressed in the past, and we are truly sorry for any immeasurable long-term damage to victims. We have learnt from these experiences, and are constantly reviewing our current practices to keep children safe in our fellowship.”[37] Dean describes their response, saying anyone with accused of CSA is asked not to attend meetings; “we take every report seriously. Even when it is only considered as inappropriate behaviour”; Workers have a written Code of Conduct which they signed and were expected to adhere to in all situations, including when they were in members' homes; all workers had to undertake formal and refresher training to keep children safe and perpetrators were banned from meetings arranged by the ministry; “the fellowship fully cooperates with police investigations and reporting of child abuse was encouraged”; “We have done risk management plans and put procedures in place to mitigate the risk of further abuse happening”; and that Workers have a written Code of Conduct which they signed and were expected to adhere to in all situations, including when they were in members' homes.[37] The church has about 2,500 members and 60 ministers in New Zealand.[57] Peter Lineham of Massey University has been researching the group since the 1970s and said that it had been active in New Zealand for 120 years.[58]
United States
The US community is estimated at 10,000 to 500,000 people.[10] In June 2024, the American Broadcasting Company television news program Nightline aired a segment on child sexual abuse cases across the United States. An expanded report aired concurrently on season 2 of the Hulu docuseries Impact X Nightline.[59] In the United States, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) opened an investigation in 2024.[60][61] An American former elder of the church, Raymond Zwiefelhofer, was sentenced to 120 years in prison in November, 2024, for 10 counts of possessing child sexual abuse material.[B]
In Nebraska and Kansas, a news agency asked the overseer about adopting an official policy; he reported all the workers in his area attended a university training on child safety; members with allegations are not allowed at conventions; he had written clear letters to members about child abuse and safety, and that abuse “would not be tolerated”; and “it was dealt with wrong in the past, but we are doing everything we can to do what’s right…We all have a fear of creating more policies to deal with these things; I believe we all know these actions are so wrong already. There are plenty of Bible verses written that can say it far better… There’s the Bible and there’s the natural law and they take care of everything. Why do we have to make more laws? The Bible’s very clear on it all and also the law of the land and we will abide by it.”[54]
Canada
Former minister Robert Corfield was convicted by admission for CSA of a child in Saskatchewan, Canada, in the 1980s.[62][63]
Sex
BBC (2025) said four unmarried women told them they were pressured into giving up their children for adoption (1950-1990).[61]
Re-marriage
In some areas, people who have divorced and remarried are not allowed to participate in meetings, particularly women, while in others they may.[64]
Fictional depictions
A few authors have fictionalized the church in novels.[65]
Name
Overview
Members refer to their belief system as "The Truth", the practice as "The Way", their gatherings as "meetings", ministers as “servants” or “workers,” and fellow adherents as "friends".[19] Members identify as non-denominational Christians.[4]
Those outside the church refer to it by exonyms, including “No-Names”, “The Nameless”, “the Disciples of Christ”, “True Christians”, “Tramp Preachers”, “Go-Preachers”, "Two by Twos", "The Black Stockings", "No-name Church", "Workers and Friends", "Truth 2x2s", or "Christians Anonymous", and journalists sometimes call it "2x2" for short.
Conscientious objection status was denied to adherents due to not having a formal name or organization; for the purposes of obtaining conscientious objector status, various regional names have been used that are otherwise not used or endorsed.
Endonym
The church identifies as nondenominational and forgoes a name.[66] Adherents refer to "The Truth", "The Way", "The Jesus Way", or "The Lowly Way".[67]
Long (1902) writes workers “were not desiring to make a new sect, but to obey God”.[68] McClung (1926) rejected exonyms, stating “We believe that to take any name but that of "Christian" would be dishonouring Him who shed His precious blood to redeem us, therefore this is the only name we can acknowledge.”[69] According to Piepkorn (1972), members see no need for an identifying name other than Christian.[4]
Exonyms
Those outside the church often use descriptive terms such as "Two by Twos",[70][71] "No-name Church", "Cooneyites", "Workers and Friends", "disciples of Jesus", "Friends", "Go-preachers", and "Tramp Preachers", among other exonyms.[72] The new movement was initially called "Tramp Preachers" or "Tramp Pilgrims" by observers (pejoratively describing ministers itinerancy and apparent apostolic poverty).[73][74] In the early 20th century in Ireland, they called themselves by the name "Go-Preachers".[75][74] By 1904, the terms "Cooneyism" and "Cooneyite" were used by commentators in areas in which Edward Cooney established churches and where he was a vocal promoter, although this exonym was rejected.[76] In 1907, they were referred to as “Dippers” (describing their baptism by immersion).[77] The exonym "Two by Twos" was in use in Canada by the early 1920s[78] and in the United States by the 1930s (describing ministers preaching in pairs).[79][74] In Germany, bynames for the church have included "Die Namenlosen" (the Nameless), "Wahre Christen" (True Christians), "Jünger Jesu" (Disciples of Jesus), and "Freunde" (Friends).[74][80] In France, they have been known as "Les Anonymes" (the Anonymous, or No-names).[81]
Obtaining conscientious objection status
Various names have also been used when obtaining legal conscientious objection status during war. The church's various registered names include "Christian Conventions" in the United States, "Assemblies of Christians" and "The Alberta Society of Christian Assemblies" in Canada (dissolved only after it was exposed), "The Testimony of Jesus" in the United Kingdom, "Kristna i Sverige" in Sweden, and "United Christian Conventions" in Australia. These registered names are used only for specific purposes (for instance, to register conscientious objection during war) and are not routinely used by members.
Application for incorporation in the Province of Alberta under the name "Alberta Society of Christian Assemblies"
Though overseers and head workers use registered names when necessary to conduct official business, most members do not associate a formal name with the church.[82] Few members are aware that the church has taken official names[83] used for church business,[84] including seeking military exemptions.[85] Registered names vary from nation to nation. In the United States, the name used is "Christian Conventions",[83][86] but in Canada, "Assemblies of Christians" is used.[87] In Britain, it is "the Testimony of Jesus",[88][89] and in Sweden the registered name is "Kristna I Sverige".[90] "United Christian Conventions" has been used in Australia and other nations[91] (Australian members previously adopted the name "Testimony of Jesus" during World War I, and registered as "Christian Assemblies" during World War II).[92] The church was also incorporated in Victoria, Australia, as a charity from 1929 until 2019 and held property in trust.[93] In 1995, controversy arose in Alberta, Canada, when part of the church incorporated as the "Alberta Society of Christian Assemblies". That entity was dissolved in 1996 after its existence became generally known.[94]
History
Overview
The formative context of 19th century Ireland included the Holiness movement; rising inter-denominational conflict between institutional churches; and decriminalization of non-conforming, non-creedal, and Unitarian beliefs (1889). A convergence of factors led to the formation of a restoration movement in 19th century Ireland.[3]
Home churches and prayer meetings of various types have played a longstanding role in cultivating and sustaining personal Christian practices for common people throughout history, both amidst persecution and revival, including the revivals and awakenings in Ireland and Scotland during the 17th and 18th centuries.[95] In Ireland, 1893, John Long started a small gospel prayer meeting in his parents home.[96]
In March, 1897, John Long and William Irvine met. In August 1897, Long organized for Irvine and Long to hold a mission in a Methodist church in Nenagh, Ireland. Long referred to this mission as “The Renewal” and “The Inception of the Go Preacher Movement.”[19] Subsequent missions followed wherever they were invited, including barns, homes, YMCA rooms, and tent revivals.[9]
The Renewal movement consisted of a surge of people leaving their homes, selling their belongings, and becoming itinerant lay ministers travelling two-by-two to spread the gospel through open-air preaching, gospel missions, house churches, and home prayer meetings.[11] By 1898, there was an increase in prayer meetings and young converts holding missions.[9]
In 1901, a group of about 12 workers were rebaptising converts; other workers disagreed with this, and a conference was held by Cooney.[9] In 1903, Long prompted Irvine, who other workers looked to for leadership, to hold a unifying convention, after which baptism and house churches were universal.[9] In 1903, the tradition spread internationally.[9] In 1906, anti-clergy teachings were introduced in the British Isles.[9]
The movement gained attention due to outdoor cold-water believer’s baptisms by immersion; women as itinerant ministers; anti-material stances denouncing salaried clergy, monetization of the gospel, and institutionalized churches; and people who responded to these messages by physically attacking them during sermons.
After heretication by church publications and negative social tagging in the early 20th century, the community became socially encapsulated and increasingly discrete.
Irvine disfellowshipped Long (1907, for defending clergy), and Overseers disfellowshipped Irvine (1914, for eschatological beliefs and perceived self-importance) and Cooney (1928, for disagreeing with overseer polity and working independently). These schisms resulted in multiple distinct unnamed fellowship networks traced to the same restoration movement.
Although other movements, such as the Plymouth Brethren and Elim have had strong Irish connections, this is the only church known to have had its origin and early development in Ireland.[97][98]
Legal context
State-enforced persecution of Christian nonconformists was introduced to the British Isles by the Roman Empire, where nontrinitarian Christianity was made a criminal offense by the Edict of Thessalonica (381) as imperial legislation enforced Orthodox Trinitarianism codified in AD 325, 381, and 431, at the Councils of Nicaea, Constantinople, and Ephesus.[99][100] Christian nonconformism to the state church was also criminalized by the United Kingdom, with non-Trinitarian beliefs punishable by death until 1697,[101] and non-trinitarians burned at the stake[102] or executed.[103]
In Ireland, non-Trinitarian belief remained a criminal offense prosecuted under common law blasphemy provisions and punishable by fines, imprisonment, and civil disabilities until the Dissenters (Ireland) Act 1817 (57 Geo. 3. c. 70), which followed the Unitarian Relief Act 1813 in England and Wales in decriminalizing non-Trinitarian worship.[104]
Christians not conforming to the state church were barred from owning property until the Nonconformists’ Chapels Act 1844 (7 & 8 Vict. c. 45).
Civil rights for Christians who were not a member of the state churches, including the right to hold political office, remained restricted by law until 1871.[105]
Educational rights for non-Trinitarians and Christians who were not members of the state Churches were restricted until 1889.[106]
Restorationism
Pre-restoration early church credited to God, and church leadership to Jesus
Cooney (1909) said, “We did not start this Jesus way… It was started and planned by God before we were ever thought of… It is not Cooney’s or another body’s way, it is God’s plan and way.”[107] Irvine (1907) said the workers had no leader but Jesus: “Why no leader?… Jesus alone is our captain and guide. He is the bishop of every church formed.”[108] Chandler (1983) reports church members hold to a long-standing view that the church has no earthly founder,[109] and that they represent the true Christian Church originating with Christ during the 1st century AD.[110]
Non-continuity
Lloyd (2010) quotes Pollock, saying “there has not been continuity from Jesus’ time until now, but we feel there was a stump left somewhere, because today there is a tree.”[111] Fisher (1983) writes he believes “ ‘faith’ has been keep alive since Jesus day until now.”[112] Jaenen’s (2003) historical analysis did not identify continuous successive workers since the first century.[3]
Renewal movement
According to Preecs (1983), brother worker Walter Pollock stated that the fellowship does not make unsubstantiated claims about its origins: "We know that it began with a group of men in the British Isles around the turn of the century. That's as far as we've been able to trace it."[113] Donald Fisher (1983), a brother worker, writes “a favourite subject of Wm. Jamieson (when the Workers would be gathered in a home) was to tell us that as far back as we could trace this fellowship was unto Wm. Irvine. He spoke openly and freely of all which he knew of Wm. Irvine, etc. What he told us was unto enough people that it would be common knowledge state wide”.[112] Jaenen (2003) and Robinson (2005) report members describing a notable resurgence or restoration in the 19th century.[114][115]
Identification as continuation of early Christian church
Sullivan (2012) describes the biblical restorationism in Ireland at the end of the 19th century as the literal origin of the 19th century movement, seeing this as a return to previously-established tradition, with credit still owed only to God. He compares restorationism to II Chronicles 15: “‘Now for a long season, Israel hath been without the true God, and without a teaching priest and without law.’ God used King Asa to replenish the oil and relight the golden candlestick in the House of God. He helped the people to return to God's true form of worship. No change from that which was from the beginning. Simply a renewal.” He writes, “Let me say assuredly that this fellowship we love so dearly was not started by any man. It is not the work of man. God planned this before He laid the foundation of the world, and in His faithfulness He has kept it the same throughout the ages.”[116]
19th century
Church in the home
John Long’s journal describes a search for peace attending Methodist and Episcopal churches, but not finding peace.[9] His religious influences were his mother, who came from a religious family (denomination not reported) and focused on quiet moral living, his father, who converted to Methodism, his grandmother, who he read the Bible with, Church of Ireland day school, and Methodistcottage meetings.[19] He attended cottage meetings in 1889. In 1890 he became a domestic servent.[9] Long describes a calling to return his faith practice to his parents home, where he "started a gospel prayer meeting in the old home" in 1893.[96]
Colporteur networks and mission work
Long (1893) writes,
“My desires to go fully on the Lord's work increased. I knew that God was calling me into active service…. The good example of a young man named William Kenny from Ballingarry, Kings County, who after his conversion gave up his farm and went as a Colporteur in the Methodist society, set me thinking about doing the same thing. It seemed to be the only branch of Mission work open to me at that time.”
In 1895, he left home and began travelling, reading the Bible and talking with people, preaching, and distributing bibles to rural and remote areas as a Methodist Colporteur.[9] He described barriers of priests telling people not to read the Bible and burning the New Testaments.[9]
Faith Mission
In Scotland, 1886, Scottish Evangelist John Govan, inspired by the Holiness movement, founded the interdenominational Faith Mission. Pilgrims went two-by-two to minister in rural areas, “trusting in God for all of their needs.”
Govan writes,
"Faith Mission was founded in 1886, for the promotion of spiritual life and godliness through the evangelising of the country districts of Scotland, and farther afield if God leads, on unsectarian lines. Evangelists, called "Pilgrims," generally work in pairs. They visit a place for several weeks, more or less, according as circumstances and the leadings of the Spirit of God seem to indicate advisable, visiting among the people and holding meetings for the unsaved and for Christians, in which they welcome the cooperation of all who love the Lord Jesus in sincerity. The Mission is maintained on the faith principle, by freewill offerings during missions and unsolicited contributions.”[117]
According to Pattison (2010), “[Faith Mission Pilgrims] preached a full, free and present salvation, by grace through faith in our Lord Jesus Christ, and claimed to preach and enjoy "victory" through the realization of an indwelling Christ.”[24]
A drawing from 1907 depicting a baptismal rite. Its caption reads "How 'Dippers' are Initiated".
Within a few months of his arrival in Ireland, Irvine was disillusioned with the Faith Mission.[121] There was friction over its Holiness teachings. Irvine saw Faith Mission leadership as hypocritical because, while the leader encouraged ministers to go out and preach on faith alone, the leader himself was wealthy and did not do so.[122] Irvine disagreed with the Faith Mission's cooperation with the other churches and clergy in the various communities of southern Ireland, regarding converts who joined churches as "lost among the clergy".[123][124]
In August 1897, Long organized for Irvine and Long to hold a mission in a Methodist church in Nenagh, Ireland.[9] Long referred to this mission as “The Renewal” and “The Inception of the Go Preacher Movement.”[9] The Nenagh Revival was held by John Long and Wm. Irvine, while John Long was a Methodist Colporteur and Irvine was a Faith Mission pilgrim.[9] Sister Oakley and thirty plus persons came under the umbrella of the Faith Mission; most of them afterwards gave up all that they had to dedicate their lives to itinerant ministry, including Jack Carroll and his sister May.[9]
Ragmolyon mission (October 1897)
Irvine left the Faith Mission due to his belief in an unpaid, faith-based ministry, and not in clergy. Irvine began to preach independently from the Faith Mission.
In October 1897, Irvine was invited by Nenagh businessman John "Jack" Carroll to preach in the Carrolls' hometown of Rathmolyon. There he held a series of mission meetings. Irvine rejected church buildings, rejected paying ministry, rejected collections[C] during services and collection boxes, and preached those seeking to join the ministry leave their homes, sell all, and give to the poor.[22]
In Rathmolyon, attendees began to leave their respective churches and join Irvine.[125] Some of these early adherents, including John Long,[D] the Carroll family, Edward Cooney—an influential evangelist from the Church of Ireland[126]—and George Walker (an employee of the Cooney family's fabric business[127]), eventually sold all and joined the new movement as itinerant preachers.[128]
Many people who attended these revival missions gave up all to go preach, and subsequent missions spread.
Converts were left to attend the church of their own choice.[9] Separation from other Christians was not a part of their teaching.[9] They did not set up meetings in the homes, did not re-baptize, or keep themselves separate.[9]
Cloughjordan mission (December 1897)
Irvine and Long preached in a mission in Cloughjordan, “well attended by people of all denominations”. Christians from Nenagh and Roscrea came to help, and it ended in a full day conference and open air preaching.[9]
Borrisokane (January 1898)
Irvine, Long, and other workers preached in an unsectarian mission in Borrisokane, 1998.[9]
Revival growth
By April, 1898, according to Long, “the testimony of the young converts worked conviction everywhere.” J.G. Govan sent two sister Pilgrims from the Faith Mission to help the revival: E. Pendreigh and A. McLean.[9] Long describes three pairs of workers who held missions: Pendreigh and McLean in Shinrone; Gilbert and Hughes in Portumna; and Irvine and Long in Templederry.[9] Missions occurred wherever they were invited: barns, outdoors, various churches, YMCA room, homes.[9]
By June, 1898, there was an increase in prayer meetings, and young converts began to hold missions in Meath, Kildare, and Tipperary.[9] Converts who began lay itinerent preaching did so in various nondenominational networks: some converts joined the Faith Mission, others joined Todd’s Mission in the Southeast of Ireland, and others went out not connected with any mission.[9]
Bible study on Mathew 10 (July 1898)
In July, 1898, Irvine, Long, and two others had a Bible study on Mathew 10, concluding Jesus’ instructions to sell all, give to the poor, and join the itinerant ministry outlined in Matthew 10 were still valid instructions today.[page needed][129] Long wrote: “While in Kilkee we had a Bible reading on Matthew 10. It was that Bible reading set me first thinking about going on Faith Lines.”[9]
The passage reads in part:
These twelve Jesus sent forth, and commanded them, saying, Go not into the way of the Gentiles, and into any city of the Samaritans enter ye not: But go rather to the lost sheep of the house of Israel. And as ye go, preach, saying, The kingdom of heaven is at hand. Heal the sick, cleanse the lepers, raise the dead, cast out devils: freely ye have received, freely give. Provide neither gold, nor silver, nor brass in your purses, Nor scrip for your journey, neither two coats, neither shoes, nor yet staves: for the workman is worthy of his meat.
Faith lines
Irvine wanted Long to join the Faith Mission, but Long decided this wasn’t God’s will for him.[9] On January 1, 1899, John Long first set out on “faith lines”: leaving home on faith alone, having no salary, taking no public collections, making no appeal for donations, and travelling and ministering where he felt spiritually led.[9]
As described by Long,
“Faith Lines is a preacher going forth without any fixed or stated salary, neither any public collections at meetings, but just trusting in God to put it into the hearts of God's people to give to the support of them who ministered in Spiritual things. If more came in than necessary learning to abound, if less learning to suffer lack.”[9]
He was joined by William Irvine, Alex Given, Tom Turner, George Walker, and Edward Cooney, who sold all they had, gave to the poor, and went out to preach. Many lay people joined, sold all they had, left their homes, and dedicated their lives to itinerent ministry, becoming what would later be referred to as workers.
Converts had “the option of their own will as to where they worship and get the most spiritual food.”[9]
20th century
In 1900, after receiving reports from Ireland of the Go Preacher movement, the Faith Mission released a letter clarifying its distinction from the movement, clarifying any ministers that previously worked with the Faith Mission who were now ministering as independent itinerant ministers were not affiliated with the Faith Mission.[130]
Balancing an unsectarian approach, the doctrine of separation, and cohesion
Cooney convened a meeting in 1901 due to confusion with a few workers who did not consider conversion experiences in other churches valid; most workers did not agree with this.[9] Irvine was not present. Long writes,
“The cause of the confusion and disorder arose from about twelve workers, mostly women, who were out preaching and used in getting other persons saved; yet got an experience in which they denied their first conversion…They were inclined to 'unChristianize' others who had not a similar experience; and put down the revival that gave them birth…They were very sanctimonious…They refused to take any correction.”[9]
In 1902, Cooney baptized converts and organized house churches among them.[9]
Irvine asked Long if he should “labour for God independently in a new district; as he shrank back from forming a new mission or sect; and the work and workers at that time were very scattered and disorganized.”[9] John Long urged him to get things organized; to call a convention; and “get the workers united together; and form the young converts into assemblies where they could get spiritual food, but to be open and unsectarian in attitude towards all other sects, missions and persons.”[9]
Irvine organized a Convention for Workers in Rathmolyon, Ireland on Willie Gill’s farm in July, 1903. Long describes
“The workers began to baptize, and separate their converts; to form them into assemblies to meet together on the first day of the week for fellowship, breaking of bread and prayers. Also, they appointed bishops, or elders over them. William Irvine emphasized separation but not exclusiveness. It was from that conference a few workers including William Irvine, went to America for a gospel tour.”
Beginning in 1900, the British Parliament raised questions about the church.[131]
Cold-water baptism by immersion
The attention of Belfast newspapers was initially drawn to the Two by Twos church because of its open-air baptismal rites.[132] The baptisms took place in public settings such as streams, lakes, or the sea, even in cold weather. The outdoor "dippings" and accompanying sermons attracted large crowds.[133][134]
Street preaching
Newspapers reported on large marches through boroughs and public preaching in town squares and on street corners.[135][136]
Conflicts and criticism of clergy
The Faith Mission outreach added members to established denominations.[citation needed] Churches began noticing their congregations thinning after exposure to the Two by Two missions.[citation needed] Clerics said the Two by Two preachers were "inimical to the membership of the church".[137]
In 1909-1910, a newspaper said that Go Preachers Edward Cooney and George Walker publicly preached that all creeds and churches were damned.[138][139] The same newspaper said they singled out prominent individuals, and even entire communities, for condemnation.[140][141] At times, missions were sited close to denominational church buildings, which, according to another newspaper, were denounced using "extreme language".[142][143] Critics responded to these sermons with heckling, street violence,[144] and the break-up of families,[145] all of which brought further attention to the church.[132] Newspapers in Ireland, Britain, and North America followed the disturbances that arose over the church's activities and message.[146] Some hosted debates in their editorial columns.[147][148] One member of Parliament offered to join the Two by Twos if they would cease criticizing other religious bodies.[149]
Conventions
As the size of the ministry increased, the church's outreach expanded.[citation needed] Large gatherings were held in Dublin, Glasgow and Belfast during 1899.[citation needed] Annual conventions, modeled after the evangelical Keswick Conventions in England,[114] began to be held regularly in Ireland starting in 1903.[citation needed]
Intercontinental spread
In 1903, William Irvine, Irvine Weir, and George Walker, went on a mission to North America.[F]Missions to continental Europe, Australia, and Asia followed.[150]
Convening house churches
In 1904, the Impartial Reporter said ministers were not preaching a requirement to "sell all" in sermons.[151] At this time there were homeless itinerant missionaries (called "workers") and those who retained homes and jobs (called "friends" or "saints").[125][152] Weekly home meetings began to be held and presided over by "elders", who were typically the householder.[citation needed] During the next few years, this change became universal.[citation needed]
Crocknacrieve convention
In September 1904, a convention was hosted on John West's Farm.[9] According to Long,
“There were no appeals for money; and no public collections; the strength and fruits of the teaching produced the necessary money which was given freely to defray the expenses which amounted to nearly fifteen hundred pounds; including the passages of those who went foreign; gave much preeminence to reading the Bible; and circulating them; and every worker was prone to spend much time in private prayer. Flirting or courting was not allowed; and the flesh or selfish life strongly condemned. Marriage was not forbidden; yet the unmarried life was commended as the freest for workers. The necessity of keeping prophets chambers and entertaining strangers was strongly set forth. At the close of the conference, every worker threw his or her money into one common purse; then it was equally divided on departing to the varied districts and fields of labour. At that convention Irvine warned the workers of speaking against men of God, such as J. G. Govan. Edward Cooney who was in great form tested the meetings every night; when the unsaved came in; and a gospel effort was made to win them. Those efforts were very fruitful for upwards of one hundred-some decided for Christ; and about the same number were baptized by immersion in a river near by.”
The church continued to grow rapidly and held regular annual conventions lasting several weeks at a time.[citation needed] Irvine traveled widely during this period,[timeframe?] attending conventions and preaching worldwide, and began sending workers from the British Isles to follow up and expand interest in various areas.[153]
Sectarian separation
Long writes that in July, 1906, at Crocknacrieve convention, “Edward Cooney emphasized re-baptism into their fellowship; which was the beginning of refusing fellowship with Christians of all other denominations; and raising a sectarian barrier which made their fellowship exclusive and sectarian.” [9]
Libel case
Beginning in 1906, attention came in the form of leaflets and billboard notices. W. D. Wilson, an English farmer whose unmarried children had left home and joined the Two by Two ministry, began publishing articles saying girls were being recruited by the church for “immoral purposes.”[154] In response, Edward Cooney brought a widely publicized suit for libel that was resolved by a settlement between the parties by the end of 1913.[32]
Overseers
According to Wilson (1993), “Despite its commitment to minimalism, the Testimony could not persist without some measure of organization. Overseers have emerged over the years to assign to preachers particular territories.”[11]
A hierarchy was instituted by Irvine, and his most trusted associates in various regions were designated as "overseers" or "head workers".[citation needed] Each worker was assigned a particular geographical sphere and then coordinated the efforts of the ministry within his area.[155] Among the overseers were William and Jack Carroll, George Walker, and Willie Gill. Irvine continued to oversee worker conduct and finances, and his activities within their fields became regarded as interference.[156] Except for such annual conventions as he was able to attend across the globe, communications and instructions from Irvine passed through the overseers.[157]
Schisms
Three workers were excommunicated from the community.[19] Irvine excommunicated Long (who was the first to preach on faith lines, organized the Nenagh revival mission, and urged Irvine to coordinate the 1903 workers meeting to unify the workers while maintaining an unsectarian attitude) for believing there were born-again clergy members.[19] Workers excommunicated Irvine (who led the Nenagh and Ragmolyon missions, and brought together the 1903 workers meeting) in 1914 over doctrinal differences, eschatological beliefs, and prophesying a new order.[19] Workers excommunicated Cooney (who was the first to baptize and organize house churches for converts) over polity differences and his anti-hierarchical stance in 1928.[19]
Excommunication of Irvine
Irvine's themes changed over time with eschatological themes beginning to appear in sermons.[158][G] By 1914, he had begun to preach that the Age of Grace, during which his "Alpha Gospel" had been proclaimed, was coming to a close.[citation needed] His message turned towards indicating a new era, which held no place for the ministry and hierarchy[159] that had rapidly grown up around the "Alpha Gospel".[160][159]
Australian overseer John Hardie was the first to break with Irvine and excluded him from speaking at the South Australia convention in late 1913. As 1914 progressed, he was excluded from speaking in a growing number of regions, as more overseers broke away from him.[161]
Workers said Irvine "had lost the Lord's anointing". He was shunned and his name was no longer mentioned.[159] There were many excommunications of Irvine loyalists in various fields during the following years, and by 1919, the split was final, with Irvine moving to Jerusalem and transmitting his "Omega Message" to his core followers from there. Lacking any organizational means of making his case before the membership, Irvine's ouster occurred quietly.[157] Most members continued following the overseers, and few outside the leadership knew the details behind Irvine's disappearance from the scene, as no public mention of the split seems to have been made.[162] Mention of Irvine's name was forbidden,[by whom?] and a new explanation of the group's history was introduced [by whom?]from which Irvine's role was erased.[163][H]
Cooney
Edward Cooney did not place his evangelistic efforts under the control of the overseers.[citation needed] Cooney himself adhered to the earlier style of itinerant ministry, moving about wherever he felt he was needed.[164] He rejected the appointment of head workers to geographic regions and criticized their lifestyles.[165] He also preached against the "Living Witness" doctrine (i.e., that salvation entails hearing the gospel preached directly by a worker and seeing the gospel made alive in the sacrificial lives of the ministry), the bank accounts controlled by the overseers, use of halls for meetings, conventions, the hierarchy that had developed, and the ministry and the registrations under official names.[125][165] His message urging a return to the original principles of Matthew 10 gained a following, including among some Australian overseers.[166]
A second division occurred in 1928 when Edward Cooney was expelled for criticizing the hierarchy and other elements that had arisen within the church, which he saw as serious deviations from the church's original message. Johnson (1995) says that after an attempted and failed faith healing, overseers excommunicated Cooney.[167] People who agreed with Cooney joined him, including some of the early workers, and they continued to practice what they perceived to be the original tenets.[168] The term "Cooneyite" today chiefly refers to the group which separated (or were excommunicated) along with Cooney and who continue as an independent group. Prior to the schism, onlookers had labeled the entire movement as "Cooneyites" due to Edward Cooney's prominence in the early growth of the church. There are areas where this older usage continues.[169]
Consolidation
These schisms were not widely publicized, and few were aware that they had occurred.[citation needed] Among those disfellowhipped were the early workers May Carroll, Irvine Weir (one of the first workers in North America, who was excommunicated for continued contact with Cooney and for his objection to registration of the church under names),[170] and Tom Elliot (who had conducted baptisms of the first workers and was nicknamed "Tom the Baptist").[171]
Political neutrality
People left local Protestant churches in Ireland to join the two-by-two movement. At this time,[timeframe?] there were increasing demands for Irish independence, largely driven by the Catholic majority community.[citation needed] The Two by Twos did not form a political front with Protestant churches against the Catholic Church.[172][173] Although the church was noted[by whom?] for anti-Catholic views, it played a very minor role during the struggle for Irish independence.[citation needed] One family that may have been associated with the church, the Pearson family, owned land where a mass path to the Catholic Church crossed their land; they were murdered and their house burned by the IRA in the killings at Coolacrease.[174][175]
Progressive privacy
In the mid-1920s, a magazine article entitled "The Cooneyites or Go-Preachers"[176] disturbed the leadership, who made efforts to have it withdrawn,[177] particularly when material from the article was added to the widely distributed reference Heresies Exposed.[178]
During this period, the church modified its evangelical outreach. The public preaching of its early days was replaced with low-key "gospel meetings", which were attended only by members and invitees.[citation needed]
The church said it had a 1st-century origin.[162][179] It [according to whom?]said that it had no organization or name or any unique doctrines.[citation needed] The church shunned publicity, making the church very difficult for outsiders to follow.[180][181]
Clarifying fields
Last page of senior overseer George Walker's statement to the U.S. Selective Service in 1942 under the name "Christian Conventions"
The North American church saw a disagreement between overseers George Walker in the east and Jack Carroll.[citation needed] In 1928, an agreement was forged between the senior overseers that limited workers operating outside of their appointed geographical spheres, known as "fields": workers traveling into an area supervised by another overseer had to first share their revelation with,[182] and obtain permission from, the local overseer.[183] The exact boundaries between fields was worked out over time, and there were areas where workers under the control of more than one overseer operated, causing disagreement.[184]
In 1930, at a conference of workers, a decision was made to resolve past disagreements and reconcile the disagreement between Jack Carroll and George Walker. This was held in/at W. Hanney in England. A Statement was signed by 16 workers that read: “It was unanimously agreed by all present that the past should be buried and that in the future all would use their influence to discourage anything that would disturb the peace in God’s family, adhering to the teaching and example of Jesus.”[19]
Conscientious objection
During the World War I, the church obtained exemption from military service in Britain under the name "The Testimony of Jesus".[citation needed] However, there were problems with recognition of this name outside the British Isles, and exemption was refused in many other areas.[185] In New Zealand during World War I, members of the church could not prove their conscientious objector status, and formed the largest segment of those imprisoned for refusal to serve.[186][187] Members and ministers also had difficulty establishing their conscientious objector status in the United States during the World War I.[181] With the start of the Second World War, formal names were adopted and used in registering the church with various national governments.[J][188] These names continued to be used for official business, and stationery bearing those names was printed for the use of overseers. Most members were not aware of these names. Some who dissented after learning of the practice were expelled by the workers.[189][170]
Internal politics
After the death of Australian overseer William Carroll in 1953, an attempt was made to reintegrate the repudiated adherents of William Irvine and Edward Cooney. [citation needed] This resulted in disagreement over (a) the church's history, (b) the development of legal names, and (c) polity (i.e. overseers).[citation needed] Many excommunications took place in the subsequent effort to enforce harmony.[190][191]
The earliest workers and overseers were succeeded by a new generation of overseers. In Europe, William Irvine died in 1947,[192] Edward Cooney died in 1960,[193] and John Long (expelled in 1907) died in 1962.[citation needed] British overseer Willie Gill died in 1951.[citation needed] In the South Pacific, New Zealand overseer Wilson McClung died in 1944, and Australian overseer John Hardie died in 1961.[citation needed] In North America, both Jack Carroll,[194] the Western overseer, and Irvine Weir died in 1957 while Eastern overseer George Walker died in 1981.[195]
Privacy
Its lack of a name and not publishing its finances,[196] doctrine, or history,[K] and avoidance of publicity[L][197] largely kept the church from public notice.[198] According to review by Wilson (1993), “They had, and still have, no printed literature, other than a hymn book. They have no archives, no buildings, and, notionally at least, no officials. They are indeed a contradiction in terms - a secret evangelistic sect.”[11]
Until the mid 1980s, notes regarding the Two by Twos had appeared infrequently in religious journals and sociological works, with some writers assuming that the church had greatly declined, with nothing published regarding it.[199][200] In 1982, the publication of The Secret Sect was followed by press reports and public statements by former members.[201][202] According to Kropp-Ehrig (2022), who wrote a book and created multiple websites after disafiliating, dissent and information and commentary on the internet and in books have occurred.[203] Kropp-Ehrig says there are regional differences.[203] Cimino (1999) cites Mayer saying strict requirements have loosened.[34] Mayer attributes internal changes within sects during the introduction of the internet to a response to increased information and criticism.[34]
21st century legal cases are outlined in full in the Social, Moral, & Cultural section.
Continued minimalism and practice
In Wilson’s (1993) review of minimalist sects including this movement (the Testimony) and others (Christadelphians and the Exclusive Brethren), he notes the Testimony continues discrete practice and conventions, and workers continue to live austere lives.[11] Wilson (1993) concludes “These sectarians have surrendered little of their first principles despite what, to a Niebuhr, and in conformity with some general law of social entropy might appear as an inevitable process of denominationalization. The minimalist groups maintain in structure, ethos, and ideology much that conforms to the ideal-typical model of the sect. Yet issues arise - about property; about military service and other civic obligations from which they seek exemption; or about health or educational obligations - when they needs must accept that the state will demand that there be authorized spokesmen who must have some power to negotiate for the group. Despite such periodic imperative need in the modern world to treat with the state, these sects have retained a great deal of their pristine spirit.”[11]
Beliefs
Non-creedal
No officially affirmed doctrine
Chryssides (2001) and Melton (2009) write all teachings are based solely on the Bible.[M][N] Fortt (2010) quotes a worker saying there is no other set doctrine.[108] All teachings are expressed orally, and the church does not publish doctrine or statements of faith.[204][205] External reporting on church beliefs is therefore limited, and may not be representative.
Quotes
Low-level evidence
Letters and quotes from individuals have not been affirmed by the church as representative. A worker from 1906 responded in letter to doctrinal inquiry.[30] Former members have posted online several letters and notes[206][207][208][209][210][211][24] and self-published a compilation of select quotes,[108] with no context or full or validated sermons available.
According to Long (1906), “Generally speaking, the doctrine of the Go Preachers was orthodox purged from ritualism, and worldly pleasures”.[9]
God
Fortt (2010) quotes Butler (1967), “God was and is the Creator.”[108]Fortt (2010) quotes Bailor (1989), “there is one God.”[108] Fortt (2010) quotes Allen (1989), “God is our Father.”[108]
Christ
Pattison (1935) writes Irvine preached “Jesus was a common man.”[212][24] Pattison (1935) writes Faith Mission pilgrims preached victory through “realization of an indwelling Christ,” and describes Irvine (1897) focusing on "Christ in you”.[24] Pattison writes, “he would persistently keep telling the people in every address that so many years ago (naming the number very definitely) he attended meetings and while doing so made up his mind to serve the Lord, that Christ came into his life, and was now living in his body, in a minor measure, as he had lived in the body of Jesus, and so realistic did he make this truth of 'Christ in You' and 'Christ in Me' that it seemed like a New Revelation, although we had been familiar enough with the words ‘Christ in you the hope of glory’ and also ‘For me to live is Christ’ and others like them.”[24] Notes on workers read "Jesus was a child, saint, and servent… Jesus was a saint before he was a servant…the pattern for the saints;"[206] "Jesus is the bread of life;"[207] "Christ is in the heart";[206] and "God's greatest message to the world is Christ; Christ the Lamb - our Redeemer ... Christ the Child - our example ... Christ the Lord - our King ... Christ the Master - our Teacher ... Christ the Word - our Authority .. Christ the Light - our Guide ... Christ the Resurrection - our Hope."[208] In notes from one speaker, Jesus is described as having both natures as "Son of God and the Son of man", with his "human nature" "becoming obedient", and "the divine nature was master over the human nature". "Give all hope of the power of the divine nature to give victory over the human nature and be obedient to God in our sphere of obedient service to God as Jesus was obedient in his sphere of service to God." Fortt (2010) quotes Propp, saying “God, Jesus, and Spirit are one in that they are united, but not one in single personality.”[108] Allen (1989) saying “Jesus said ‘That they may be one as we are one.’ This was a number of people with one heart, mind and spirit to do one thing. There is one mind and heart of Father and Son and Spirit. It is important to have unity of heart and mind and spirit to do the will of God as Jesus to do the Father's will.“[108] Fortt (2010) quotes Allen (1989) saying “God is our Father, and Jesus is our elder brother.”[108]
Salvation
“Salvation… is God's deliverance in our lives. It is God giving us victory in our own hearts over ourselves.”[108] “By abiding in Him, we can receive divine life.”[108] Fortt (2010) quotes Pattison, saying ”Jesus does not look for sinless perfection, but He does look for love and our heart’s affection.”[108] “Where there is love, there will be sacrifice; if we really love the Lord, there will be sacrifice.”[108] Fortt (2010) quotes Anderson saying “where there is love, there is sacrifice,” and that “sacrifice is an expression of love;” Blonke saying “self-denial is our part in salvation;” Boyce describing a “spirit of sacrifice;” and Birille saying “joy follows sacrifice.”[108] "It is by ‘dying’ to the human ["the pride or selfishness of my own heart"] that we live unto the divine".[209] "You must give yourself to the Lord if you want Him to give Himself to you."[209] "To obtain true peace: Obey the Spirit of Christ in you. God can make us partakers of His Divine Life."[210] Another worker is quoted as stating "Apart from Christ being revealed in the heart, no man can be saved. Their salvation does not consist of walking in the way, of having fellowship with us, but of having Christ governing and ruling their lives from day to day." [211]
Humility, imperfection, and fallibility
"There are no perfect preachers in the world and never have been except Jesus, and He was the most found fault with of any man."[213]
"God's way is right, perfect even though all who walk in it are imperfect. If we all turn aside, God's way is still the same and is right and perfect."[213]
"I don't know how long I may continue in the path, but if I ever turn aside, it is not because the way is wrong, but because the pride or selfishness of my own heart would not allow me to continue in it any longer."[213]
External commentary
Two peer-reviewed journal articles comment on the movements’ beliefs from a Lutheran[4] and Catholic[11] perspective. Former members and critics of the church have self-published statements about its beliefs, although these points have rarely been publicly responded to by any authorities within the church.[214]
Theology proper: Monotheism
According to former member Kropp-Ehrig, the church believes "There is only one God. God is God, the Father, the Creator." [citation needed]
Christology
Pattison describes Irvine notion of Jesus as a common man, in contrast to a “fictitious ‘Gentleman Jesus’”; Pattison writes this was (a) objected to by clergy as irreverent, and (b) relatable for low-class common people.[215][24] Kropp-Ehrig (2022) writes that some people in the fellowship understand the relationship between Christ and God through a range of low to high christologies.[7] Lloyd (2010) quotes Bors (1979), saying how this unity is communicated depends on who they are talking to.[108] According to Nichols (2006) and Melton (2009), adherents believe in the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, and hold a Unitarian view of Jesus.[216] Parker and Parker (1982) say the tradition teaches Jesus is God's son, a fully human figure who came to earth to establish a way of ministry and salvation.[217] Fort (1994) writes the community does not believe Jesus is God himself.[218][219] Christian Research Institute, a self-published Evangelical apologist ministry, comments adherents express themes of belief in “the Word of God made flesh”, Christ as the perfect expression of God, Christ living again within, and following the example of Jesus.[220][221] According to McClure (1907), adherents beliefs are generally nuanced towards Unitarianism.[222][14] According to Woodard (1997) and Walker (2007), the church has rejected the doctrine of the Trinity[223] since its inception.[224][O] According to Piepkorn (1972), “the fellowships views on the Trinity are those commonly held by conservative Christian groups, so are their positions on the deity and humanity of Christ, and on the atonement through His death on the cross, published statements of the movements critics notwithstanding.”[4]
Hamartiology
According to Piepkorn (1973), they believe God is the judge of people, not them.[4]
Soteriology
Atonement, recapitulation, and moral influence
The communities beliefs have been described to include the necessity of atonement on the cross, Christ’s victory over sin, and participation by believers in both Christ’s sacrifice and resurrection. According to Piepkorn, the community has orthodox beliefs in atonement through Christ’s death on the cross.[225][4][226] Piepkorn recounts the community has received strongly polemical evaluation from a commentator with a dispensationalist perspective, charging the community with believing Christ had to overcome his human nature and the temptation to sin through his life.[225] According to Wilson (1993), the sect believes salvation occurs not just from the death and resurrection of Christ, but through his life.[11][225] Wilson (1993) writes they do not just believe in forensic imputed righteousness as the sole source of redemption, but the necessity of sharing in his sacrifice, through following Christ’s example, and thus spiritually sharing in his resurrection through imparted righteousness (transformation).[11]
Grace and synergy
Piepkorn writes, “there is a strong focus both on Gods grace and on holiness as the necessary and deliberate choice of Christ’s followers.”[4][P]
Faith, rebirth, participation, submission, transformation, and sanctification
Piepkorn (1972) writes, “[spiritual] rebirth is seen [by the fellowship] as the indispensable criteria of salvation,” the result of faith in the Word of God.[4] According to Piepkorn’s review, the community believes in the work of the Holy Spirit in people’s lives.[4][227][225] According to Wilson (1993), they believe in imparted righteousness.[11] According to Wilson (1993), the sect believes salvation requires sharing in Christ’s sacrifice (I.e. self-denial; submission to God).[11][Q][228] According to Johnson (1995), suffering is revered.[by whom?][228] In the Evangelical mission Christian Research Institute’s self-published polemical commentary on the movement, they write that adherents believe in following the example of Jesus, and in Christ, as the living Word of God and the pure expression of God, living again within.[29]
Election
In 1910, a newspaper reporter wrote they held that salvation is given to those with spiritual life.[229]
Summary
Salvation is the work of God in human lives.[108] Salvation is unity with God, by grace, enabled by atonement and reconciliation, occurring synergistically through the ceaseless work of the Spirit in one’s heart and life affecting body, soul, and spirit towards a personal transformation of faith and willingness for submission to God; repenting through a complete change in mind and purpose; following Christ in living for God and expressing love as a voluntary offering of self-denial, i.e. spiritual mortification; abiding in God and growing in grace; and receiving the divine life.[108][230][108][4]
Practices
Primitivism
As described by Irvine (1913), adherents "seek to follow the pattern given by Jesus and the apostles and keep close to the practices of the early Church, as there are so many different interpretations."[23]Primitivist/restorationist traditions are different from reformationists, as primitivists do not see their movement as novel, but consistent with the early Christian church in the Acts of the Apostles.[231]
Sacraments / ordinances
Baptism
Believer’sBaptism by immersion is practiced.[232] Baptism has been described in letters by workers as symbolic of burial (ie dying to the "old self"), new life, and a sacred vow.[233] Baptism is considered [by whom?] a necessary step for salvation.[citation needed] The church shares baptism approaches and doctrine with Believer’s Church traditions.[232] According to an unnamed letter attributed to a worker, a minister "in fellowship with Jesus" “ who had been willing to follow Jesus in his Way” can baptize. New converts baptised in other churches or traditions may be re-baptised.[9][232] Baptisms are conducted in cold outdoor water.[133][134] Baptisms are often scheduled for one morning during a Convention in a nearby pond, lake, river, creek or ocean.[19] Families and onlookers gather, pray, and sing hymns during the ceremony, as led by a worker.[234][235] Baptism is conducted “in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.”[4]
Communion
Communion is shared weekly, with bread and wine (or grape juice) personally taken by members in Sunday morning meetings.[236] Only adherents who are baptized partake in communion.[8] According to Holt (1992), "Each individual decides if he/she is worthy [to partake] or not."[237] According to Holt (1992), “If a person is willing for the separation necessary, but has not yet had the opportunity for baptism, they are free to take of the emblems,” however it is important to “understand the seriousness of partaking.”[237]
The community affirms the Bible as its only scripture, and the study of the Bible receives prominent focus.[4] In English language services, the King James Version is commonly, though not exclusively, used.[4]
Family-based learning and practice
The community rejects catechetical indoctrination and Christian education institutions like Sundayschool.[4] The community centres learning faith practices in the home and family life, and Bible study.[4]
Lloyd quotes Carroll emphasizing the need to “separate himself and wait upon God” for the “cultivation of the personal, private walk with God,” through contemplative prayer and meditation, “getting to know [God’s] whisper in the secret depths of our hearts,” and “listening to the voice of God in our hearts.”[108]
Hymnals
The church's first hymnal, The Go-Preacher's Hymn Book, was compiled by 1909[238] and contained 125 hymns. The English-language hymn book currently used is Hymns Old and New[239] and was first published in 1913[240] with several subsequent editions and translations. It contains 412 hymns, many of which were written or adapted by workers and other members of the church, and is organized into "gospel" and "fellowship" hymns.[241] A smaller, second hymnal, also titled Hymns Old and New, consists of the first 170 songs found in the full hymnal. Another version of the hymnal contains words without musical notation and is used primarily by children and those who cannot read music.[239] Hymnals in other languages, such as "Himnos" in Spanish, contain many hymns translated from the English and sung to the same tunes, as well as original non-English compositions.
Ecclesiology
Fellowship Community
Wilson (1993) characterizes the tradition as a sect, being a “small, subjective fellowship of love,” and minimalist group derived from low-class communities, and persisting without the usual evolution into a denomination despite social pressures.[11] According to Wilson (1993), “The Testimony provides a good exemplification of Troeltsch's opinion that while the Church was derived from Paul, the sect derived from Jesus.”[11]
Christian simplicity
Minimalism
According to Wilson (1993), the tradition is committed to minimalism.[11]
A catchphrase used to describe the tradition is: "The church in the home, and the ministry without a home."[125][242][11]
No church buildings
According to Wilson (1993), they have no church buildings.[11] The concept of church buildings is seen as inconsistent with biblical Christianity and was strongly denounced by early workers.[243] Its ministers do not own homes or earn salaries.[11] The church has upheld these practices since its inception.[244][245] A dedicated church building was constructed in Canada at the start of the 19th century, but was rejected by Irvine.[246]
Rural Conventions
A review by Wilson (1993) describes conventions as “great tented gatherings in the countryside which hundreds or even thousands may attend.”[11] Wilson writes that these open-air conventions occur usually in the summer, and usually on land belonging to a member or close sympathizer.[11] Some adherents who own rural or semi-rural properties dedicate them to worship, housing workers, and church gatherings during conventions and special meetings.[7][pageneeded] Buildings specially constructed or repurposed for conventions do exist, including convention buildings, meeting halls,[247] tents, caravans, and portable halls.[248] Newspapers have reported on adherent family’s hosting conventions on their farms.[249][250] A Northern Irish investment vehicle purchased an English convention property.[251]
According to Fort (1994), the following terms are commonly used by adherents in English-speaking countries.[R]
Church
Generally refers to a small local group that meets in a home; can refer to a larger group of believers. This term is never used to refer to a building except for church buildings of other denominations. Used colloquially when talking to strangers to refer to Sunday/Wednesday activity, e.g., "I'll be at church until midday." Some regions choose not to use this word at all, emphasizing the church's separation from other mainstream beliefs.
Meeting
A gathering of members held in members' homes or rented buildings.
Field
A geographical region to which workers have been assigned (similar to parishes)
Mission
A series of larger meetings known as gospel meetings, the function of which is proselytizing.
Friend, saint
Adherent or member of the laity. Collectively "the friends" or "the saints".
Profess
To make a public declaration of one's willingness to become a member is generally a sign that a person may participate in the prayer and testimony sections of Wednesday night and Sunday morning meetings or at designated testimony times in larger gatherings. Professing constitutes an intermediate stage. Following baptism, the partaking of bread and grape juice (or wine) is also permitted, which occurs between the elder's testimony and the final hymn in some fields.
Bishop, elder, deacon
A chairman of a local meeting. Usually, the male head of the house in which meetings are held. The bishop/elder is typically the person in charge of calling the start of the meeting. The deacon is considered an alternative to the elder in some areas.
Worker, servant, apostle
Terms used to denote the church's semi-itinerant, homeless ministers. These are unmarried (several exceptions were made during the first half of the 20th century to allow married couples to enter the ministry) and do not have any formal training. Workers go out in same-sex pairs (hence the term "Two by Two"), consisting of a more experienced worker with a junior companion.
Head worker, overseer
The senior worker in charge of a geographic area roughly corresponds to the position of a bishop in Catholicism. No hierarchical position is higher than overseer—such as a pope.
Not professing
Any person who has not made a public declaration of their intention to follow Jesus during a meeting (see “Profess”).
The world, worldly person
A broad term used to describe all people not involved in the church, including those in other religions
Piepkorn (1972) observes “there is a strong in-group feeling in the fellowship. Mutual aid, even to the point of sharing possessions in times of need, plays an important part.” [4] According to Wilson (1993), the community takes the extended family as its model kinship system, and is community-oriented.[11]
According to Piepkorn (1972), member’s modest attire is a part of rejecting worldliness. Members wear simple, modest clothing, and no jewelry (except a wedding ring if married).[4] Women have long hair, and men have short hair. Members do not get piercings, do not dye their hair, and do not get tattoos.[204][254]
According to Wilson (1993), they are not communitarian or socially or vicinally segregated.[11] Wilson classifies them as introversionist, and writes they attempt to live life with their extended family and apart from broad society in every way possible.[11]
The use of television, social media sites, and other mass media is discouraged in some areas, based on the stance of the local workers and overseers.[256]
Cultural variability
Standards and practices vary geographically: for example, in some areas, wine is used in Sunday meetings; in other areas, grape juice is used; in some areas.[64]
Cultural practices vary between families. The church values dedication to the doctrine.[according to whom?]
Meetings
Participation
Participatory practices
Members attend meetings, pray, and testify at them.[8][257] According to Piepkorn (1972), “Men and women alike may address the assembly on Bible passages of their own choice, and their understanding and interpretation of the passage is received respectfully.[4]”
Non-charismatic
Although the church has roots in the Holiness movement and has inherited some of its features, the church is non-charismatic.[114] Piepkorn (1973) writes “while the services appear bland…the congregations assemble with eager and quiet expectancy a full quarter of an hour before the scheduled time that the meeting is to begin.”[4]
Gatherings
The church holds several types of gatherings throughout the year in various locations.[S] Meetings include participatory prayer and testimony home meetings (Sunday worship and mid-week Bible study),[8] public gospel meetings,[8] conventions (including tent meetings),[8][4] elder and workers meetings,[19] and baptisms (outside).[4] Family meetings,[4] personal house visitations,[8] and fellowship potlucks also occur.[9] Funerals and weddings, are by family invitation, and may also include prayers and/or sermons.[258] According to notes attributed to an elder, "the purpose of our meeting is to worship. One meaning of worship is "our whole being going out to God". The chorus of hymn number 243 describe: "worship". "Gladly yielding all, moved by love divine." We come to meeting to give ourselves again because of the love and gratitude in our hearts."[259]
Gospel meeting
A Gospel meeting is open to both members and those who are not a member of the church.[260] At one time, Gospel meetings were typically held in tents, set up by workers as they traveled; they are now most commonly held in a rented space.[T] Gospel meetings are held to attract new members, though professing members typically make up the majority of attendees. The Gospel meeting consists of a period of quiet, followed by congregational singing (often accompanied by piano) of selected hymns, and then sermons delivered by the church's workers. Gospel meetings are regularly scheduled for portions of the year in areas where the group is well-established. They may also be held when a worker believes there may be people in the region who would be receptive to the church's message.
Sunday morning meeting
Participation in this closed[261] meeting is generally restricted to members. It is usually held in the home of an elder, and consists of a cappella singing from the regular hymnal,[239] partaking of communion emblems[234][262] (a piece of leavened bread and a cup of wine or grape juice),[263] prayer and sharing of testimonies by members in good standing.[264]
Bible study
Participation in this closed meeting is generally restricted to members, and is usually held in the home of an elder each Wednesday evening. Members are assigned a list of Bible verses or a topic of study for consideration during the week, for discussion at the next meeting. As the meeting progresses, each member shares thoughts regarding the scripture or topic. Thoughts are shared by individual members in turn, and members do not engage in discussions during the meeting. The Bible study meeting includes hymns and prayers.
Union meeting
This is a monthly gathering of several congregations, and follows the format of the Sunday morning meetings. Union meetings are not open to the public.
Special meeting(s)
Special meetings are annual gatherings of members from a large area. Each is held as a private gathering, often in a rented hall. Special meetings last a single day, and include sermons by local and visiting workers. The sermons are interspersed with prayers, hymns, and testimonies.
Convention
These annual events are attended by members from within a larger geographical area than for the special meetings. These services generally follow the format used for special meetings. Conventions are held over several days, usually in rural areas on properties with facilities to handle housing, feeding, and other necessities for those who attend. There are typically crude male and female dormitories, a dormitory for the Workers, and male and female communal bathrooms with simple showers. Conventions are not open to the public, although outsiders often attend by invitation. Although not now usual, members were at one time segregated by sex during services.[250]
Workers' meeting
These gatherings are not open to either the public or general membership. Attendance and participation are restricted to workers and certain invited members. The meeting may be a regular Bible study, or it may be used to disseminate any instructions from senior workers or to issue decisions about controversial matters. They are held during conventions, or as necessary. These meetings include prayer, a period for testimonies from any workers wishing to share, and may include statements by senior workers in attendance.
Ministry
Ordainment
John Long (1893) writes, “Conversion and the Holy Spirit are the essential qualifications for the ministry of the word…” and “every believer is ordained”.[96] He discusses spirit-led appointment over ecclesiastical credentialism or formal church employment, in the context of the requirement at the time among Protestants and Roman Catholics that appointing required formal seminary education.[96]
Succession of witnesses
Historian Dr. C. Jaenen (2003) describes the ministry as apostolic in the sense that they are a chain of witnesses living a life of apostolic poverty and itinerant preaching, with doctrine in alignment with witnesses of the gospel shared since the first century.[3] According to Jaenen (2003), this is not an unbroken line of direct person-to-person, immediately consecutive, successively appointed bishops, hired, titled, and appointed within the same church institution, extending from the apostles to present day (ie continuous intra-denominational or intra-institutional apostolic succession).[265] Piepkorn (1972) writes workers believe they have apostolic succession and authority, and states “since the servants literally "live the life" that Christ commanded, going out two by two with nothing in their hands or pockets, their unqualified commitment tends to provide moral support for their authority.” Jaenen (2003) describes an ongoing pattern of restoration movements since early Christianity, and clarifies a distinction between apostolic succession and a succession of witnesses of apostolic doctrine and fellowship, writing there is generally no sufficient evidence for any direct apostolic succession in any continuous community, yet “there has been a chain of witnesses of the apostolic doctrine and fellowship over the centuries” (P. 538).[266] Jaenen writes,
“It mattered little to [the fellowship] whether they were part of a chain of faith, a survival of truth, a succession of believers, or a restored church. They held to the apostolic doctrine and fellowship, they possessed an apostolic ministry and church on the New Testament model, and they were led by the Holy Spirit. Whether the Spirit of God had restored the true faith after a lapse in its manifestation, or whether the Spirit had rekindled some smouldering embers of a small obscure remnant, mattered little. What was important was that those who would be led by the Spirit would be the children of God. God did not reveal all the secrets of his work with humanity. Those were views held in past centuries and we should not be astonished to find they are held by some in our day.” (p. 540).[267]
“a band of unpaid preachers who took as their charter text Matthew 10, to ‘provide neither gold nor silver nor brass for your purses, nor scrip for your journey, neither two coats, shoes, nor yet staves, for the workman is worthy of his meat’. Those who accepted this call became literally Tramp Preachers - another name by which the movement became known. They took vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, but they were not monks. They were… anti-clerical. The preachers surrendered their homes and property and families to the cause, to become idealistic preachers of the Word to anyone who would listen… The preachers led and in considerable measure still lead austere lives.”[11]
The church's ministerial structure is based on Jesus' instructions to his apostles found in Matthewchapter 10, verses 8–16 (with similar passages in Mark and in Luke). Following these Biblical examples, its ministers have no permanent dwelling places, minister in pairs, sell all and go out with only minimal worldly possessions, take no collections, request no donations, and rely only upon hospitality and generosity.[268][269] Ministers receive their support unsolicited, mostly directly from lay members, and have no fixed address except for mail collection.[125]
The option of entering the ministry is open to every baptized member. Workers do not engage in any formal religious training.[270]
Roles
Workers function as itinerant ministers, evangelists, spiritual teachers, and pastors.[4] Workers provide personal counsel, attend local house churches while visiting an area, hold public gospel meetings, and conduct baptisms.[9][4] They also travel more broadly to prepare and preach at conventions in multiple regions.[8] Workers organize and assign members to the home meetings, appoint elders, and decide controversies among members. Workers are not registered marriage celebrants, so members are married by secular functionaries (such as a justice of the peace). However, workers will give sermons and prayers at members' weddings if requested, and they officiate at the funerals of members.[271] According to notes from a workers meeting, "there are three words that govern the life of a worker: Love of God, Dying Life, and Slave."[272]
Gender roles
Female workers have been equally ordained to preach since the inception of the tradition. Female workers operate in the same manner as male workers. Female workers do not hold the position of overseer. Female workers participate in, but do not chair, meetings when a male worker is present.[273]
Semi-Coenobitic, semi-eremitic
Workers live, travel, and preach in same-sex pairs, as co-workers and spiritual companions.[4] They regularly both participate in prayer meetings and fellowship with other workers and the community, and withdrawal for solitary contemplative practice.[8][3] It has been many decades[timeframe?] since married people were accepted into the ministry.[273]
Written, spoken, and lived Word
According to a newspaper opinion piece reporting on the ministry in 1910, ministers believe salvation is offered to those who have spiritual life. It describes a belief that spiritual life spreads spiritual life, and that the gospel (the word of the New Testament) must be both preached (orally personally shared) and lived (i.e. the example and teachings of Jesus and the instructions to the apostles, e.g. the workers’ apostolic poverty).[122][74] During the early years,[timeframe?] this was referred to as the "Living Witness Doctrine", though that term is no longer used. Sharing and spreading the gospel, as preached and lived by a witness, occurs in person, rather than by broadcasts, recordings, books or tracts, or other indirect communication.[214][274] Fortt (2010) quotes Norman (1978), saying “the Testimony is not said, it’s lived.”[108]
Some sources have referenced the 19th century workers teaching the Living Witness doctrine, believing that life comes from life, and that reading the Bible is held as insufficient for salvation unless its words are made alive through living witness, that clergy were not living witnesses, and that the workers were the only ministry of living witnesses, since they lived out apostolic poverty and an itinerant ministry.[U][275][according to whom?] The worker that this was first attributed to clarified in letter that he did not teach an exclusive formulation of the "Living Witness Doctrine", but rather the value for preaching as a way to communicate the word of God.[276] He clarified (a) this was not intended to be exclusive (ie that the preacher had to be of a particular denomination), (b) direct personal revelation was also valid, as exemplified by Paul, and (c) that there was no place in the universe where the voice of God cannot be heard.[276] Notes from a workers meeting were leaked in 2024, documenting workers affirming the rejection of the exclusivist formulation of the living witness doctrine (ie that salvation only comes through workers) and highlighting the importance of personal faith over lineage. The extemporaneous preaching of the ministry is considered to be guided by God[277][66] and should be shared personally.[278][279] Great weight is given to the thoughts of workers, especially more senior workers.[280]
Coordination
Communication
While distributed, the community network is cohesive. According to Piepkorn (1972), “communication within the fellowship is very good and makes extensive use of personal contacts and mail.”[4]
Polity
According to Wilson (1993),
“despite its commitment to minimalism, the Testimony could not persist without some measure of organization… Overseers have emerged over the years… minimalism is not wholly adequate in the modern world. Covert structures develop, and informal authority systems evolve, even though the anti-organizational commitment remains strong and impressive. The surprising item is not the compromises that have to be made for a religious body to persist, but the relative success of these sects in resisting the desiccating process of routinization. These sectarians have surrendered little of their first principles despite what, to a Niebuhr, and in conformity with some general law of social entropy might appear as an inevitable process of denominationalization.”
Overseer positions have oversight of a specific geographic region; these positions consist of senior male workers. Senior overseers oversee head workers within their region. Head workers have oversight of a single state, province or similar area, depending on the country; these positions also consist of male workers.[281] These head workers handle the two-by-two pairing and field assignments of workers for that area. Overseers pair new workers with senior companions until they are deemed ready to move beyond a junior position.[282] The workers are assigned new companions annually.[66]
Each pair of workers has several local meetings in their field.
Fortt (2010) quotes Caroll, “Old workers are responsible for helping young workers… It is not that you should rule over one another. We are not joined together by law but by love, and we need to be subject one to another.”[108]
Correspondence such as reporting, finances, and instructions are often communicated from local workers to regionally overseeing head workers, and from overseeing head workers to geographically overseeing workers.[283] The administration of the church and its annual process of assigning of workers to fields are rarely discussed among the membership.[202]
Organization
Members state that the church is not a formal organization.[284] There is no system of government in which members participate.[285] According to Johnston (1995), members “seem unaware that a system of government even exists.”[V] According to Elorreaga (2022), there is a clear chain of oversight system; members understand the oversight system and are familiar with local workers and overseers but may not know who the overseeing workers are in other regions of the world.[286] Although in the early years of the church a headquarters was maintained in Belfast,[114] no headquarters currently exist and the church remains largely unincorporated. Both expenditures and funds are not reported to the membership and no accounting is made public.[198] Funds are handled through stewardships, trusts, and cash transactions. Financial arrangements do not have fraudulent characteristics.[286] The church does not run any external outreach programs.[citation needed]
No materials are published by the church for outside circulation other than invitations to open Gospel meetings.[287] Printed materials are published for circulation among the members and include sermon notes, convention notes, Bible study lists, convention lists, and worker lists.[278] In recent years, contact details of members, including phone numbers and home addresses, have been compiled into booklets. These booklets are treated as highly confidential and available for workers' use only. Some members of the group refuse to provide their details for these booklets, in the name of privacy. Some members of the group see the internal dissemination of worker letters as continuing the practice of the early Church and the epistolary work of the original apostles.[288]
↑ The church does not publish any membership statistics; outside researchers give a wide range of estimates. In part, this depends on who is included as a member (children of members, unbaptized participants, lapsed members, etc) and whether the metric estimates are based upon known numbers of annual conventions, numbers of ministers, etc. One researcher has said that people on the fringes of church membership can be up to twenty times the number of regular members.(Hosfeld & 17 August 1983, pp.1–2) During the 1980s, The Sydney Morning Herald gave an estimate of between 1 and 4 million members worldwide,(Gill & 30 June 1984, p.37) while a 2001 estimate put Australian membership at 70,000.(Giles & 25 July 2001, p.014) A sociology masters thesis from 1964 estimated U.S. membership at 300,000 to 500,000 and world membership as between 1 and 2 million.(Crow 1964, pp.2, 16) Benton Johnson updated the metrics to arrive at a figure of 48,000 to 190,000 for the United States alone.(Johnson 1995, pp.43–44) George Chryssides states that membership numbers are uncertain, giving an estimate for the United States during 1998 as ranging from 10,000 to 100,000 and a worldwide membership probably three times that figure.(Chryssides 2001b, pp.330–331) The World Christian Encyclopedia shows the group in the United States growing from 100,000 in 1970 to 270,000 in 1990, while during the same period, Australian membership declined from 150,000 to 100,000.(Barrett, Kurian & Johnson 2001, pp.85, 785) A 2022 source cited a worldwide decline of 38% in the number of ministers and up to a 40% decline in members since 1980.(Kropp-Ehrig 2022, p.497) Figures from other sources fall within this same wide range.
↑ An ABC News report stated: "'In total, there were 87 files that were determined to be child sexual abuse material or sometimes known as child pornography,' Catherine Fu, a Maricopa Deputy County Attorney, told ABC News. 'The 10 charged files were a combination of photos and videos, and they were all depicting children under the age of 15 engaged in either exploitive exhibition or sexual conduct.' Zwiefelhofer, 61, maintains his innocence."(ABC 2024b).
↑ Collection refers to the donation money collected from a church congregation during a service, normally by means of a collection plate or box.
↑ John Long (1872–1962) traced his conversion experience to a mission held by Methodist evangelist Gabriel Clarke in 1890. He became a colporteur for the Methodists in Ireland, where he encountered William Irvine. He eventually joined Irvine's workers, until publicly expelled in 1907 for disagreeing with the group's exclusivist position (Robinson 2005, p.36). Long returned to his work as a colporteur (Lennie 2009, p.426) and joined the Elim evangelists for a time. From there he went on to become a noted Pentecostal preacher in Ireland, Scotland, Wales and England (Robinson 2005, p.36). The editor of Heresies Exposed included a correction by Long of the name of the church's original leader and the year of its founding in 1897 (Irvine 2003, p.73(fn)). He also left his memoirs (in journal form, though redacted many years later) (Long 1927).
↑ To view the complete 1910 article shown above, see here.
↑ The immigration record shows Irvine, Walker and Weir stating that they were joining a relative, "George McGregor" living at Coffey Street in Brooklyn New York (R.I.S. 2009a).
↑ "As early as 1912, Irvine was exercising his charismatic imagination in ways that must have been unsettling to those in the movement with an interest in routinization. In that year he told conventions that it might be possible to travel to the stars and act as saviours to them as Jesus acted for us. He spoke of Christ's imminent return and referred to his movement as the 144,000 mentioned in the Book of Revelation."—Benton Johnson (Johnson 1995, p.50).
↑ "The workers declared that Irvine 'had lost the Lord's anointing' and banned him from all assemblies. But they also had to devise a new source of authority for the movement's very special brand of Christianity. They did this by an ingenious falsification of their own history, in which Irvine's role was obliterated. And armed with this new history and the unity to enforce a ban on Irvine, the workers declared that the founder's name was not to be mentioned within the movement. He was excised from the shared memory of the organization he had founded."—Johnson in Klass and Weisgrau (Johnson 1999, p.378).
↑ This is the subject of letters from Rittenhouse and Sweetland, given in full in Reinventing the Truth (Daniel 1993, pp.281, 283–284).
↑ "In very short order they also destroyed Irvine's earlier stature as a charismatic innovator by explaining that the sect he had founded was actually a collective rediscovery of the earliest form of Christianity, which had existed as small persecuted bands since the first century."—Benton Johnson (Johnson 1995, p.50).
↑ "The Cooneyites, also called the Two-by-Two's, have developed the shunning of publicity into a fine art."—Melton (Melton 2009, p.554).
↑ "Two by twos use the Bible as their sole source of authority and have developed no statement of belief apart from Scriptures. They practice the Lord's Supper (communion) weekly and practice believer's baptism, rebaptizing new members. Their lifestyle includes modesty of appearance, avoidance of worldly activities such as watching television, and usually pacificism."—George D. Chryssides (Chryssides 2001b, p.330).
↑ "Members shun publicity, refuse to acquire church property, and issue no ministerial credentials or doctrinal literature, believing that the Bible (King James Version) is the only textbook and that, to be effective, the communication of spiritual life must take place orally, person to person. The only printed documents are hymnals."—J. Gordon Melton (Melton 2009, p.554).
↑ "It appears that the sect's theological position on the divinity of Christ, the atonement, and man's justification before God, has never changed, yet at mission meetings and in private discussion with people whom they successfully proselytized, preachers gave the misleading impression that their church was evangelical, and that in no way did it deviate from basic Christian beliefs."—Doug Parker and Helen Parker (Parker & Parker 1982, pp.102–193).
↑ Hymns which contained hints of salvation by grace, trinitarianism or redemption based upon the blood of Christ were purged or changed in a 1987 revision (Grey 2012, p.55)
↑ "Moreover, no-names do not believe that Jesus's death on the cross will wash away the sins of all who accept him as their savior; salvation only comes through a life of sacrificial obedience to the instructions and examples of Jesus. All recent authorities agree that the road to salvation for these sectarians is a hard one. Carol Woster, who spent two years in the group, recalls that one long-time member she knew 'seemed to see life as a grieving journey, where after the [Sunday] meeting, the next day she would 'take up the struggle' to go on...' There is, she found, little 'Christian joy or confident hope' among the no-names."—Benton Johnson (Johnson 1995, p.44).
↑ These terminology definitions follow Fortt 1994, pp.15–202.
↑ This list of meeting types follows the list given in Daniel 1993, pp.13–15.
↑ "Ordinary meetings among lay believers are held in houses, but periodically the itinerants visit each district, and there they borrow a hall (often the Church hall of an unsuspecting minister) for a preaching meeting for the public at large."—Bryan R. Wilson (Wilson 1993).
↑ "They [the ministers] are considered 'the word made flesh' in our day."—Christian Research Institute (C.R.I. & 13 April 2009).
↑ "A concern for public exposure may be the principal reason why the no-name sect has no newsletters or other publications even for its own members. The lack of such internal documents makes it difficult for members to know what is going on within the group, but, as Simmel observes, the less the members know, the less they will be able to tell outsiders if they decide to talk openly about it. The need for internal secrecy also may explain why the nameless sect has no system of government in which ordinary members participate. I[n] fact, most members seem unaware that a system of government even exists.."—Benton Johnson (Johnson 1995, p.43).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Jaenen, Cornelius. (2003). The Apostles' Doctrine and Fellowship: a documentary history of the early church and revisionist movements. Legus Publishing, Ottawa, Ontario. ISBN1-894508-48-3
↑ Irvine was initially an interdenominational Faith Mission pilgrim who led gospel missions in 1897, and organized the workers in 1903. He was recognized as the leader of the Go Preachers movement. He was excluded from the community in 1913 after deviation from community’s orthodox doctrine. The community acknowledges his work as the formation of the Go Preacher movement but he is not regarded by the community as the origin of faith or the Apostolic tradition. Kropp-Ehrig 2022.
↑ John Long started a gospel prayer meeting in his home in 1983; began as a Methodist Colportour; organized the first gospel mission of the Go Preacher movement in 1897; was the first of the Go Preacher movement to preach itinerantly independently from any organization, on faith alone, with no collections or salary, in 1899; and advised Irvine to coordinate the workers in 1903. Irvine excluded him from the community in 1907 for believing that there could be born-again clergy, even if they did not adhere to apostolic poverty. Long writes that people looked to Irvine as the leader of the movement, and describes he and Irvine “being the two instruments used of God at the origin of that movement” Long, J. (1923). The Journal of John Long. Oldstone, Mucklamore. https://www.tellingthetruth.info/publications_johnlong/1longjohn.php#prefacel
1 2 3 4 5 [A] The church does not publish any membership statistics; outside researchers give a wide range of estimates. In part, this depends on who is included as a member (children of members, unbaptized participants, lapsed members, etc) and whether the metric estimates are based upon known numbers of annual conventions, numbers of ministers, etc. One researcher has said that people on the fringes of church membership can be up to twenty times the number of regular members.(Hosfeld & 17 August 1983, pp. 1–2) During the 1980s, The Sydney Morning Herald gave an estimate of between 1 and 4 million members worldwide,(Gill & 30 June 1984, p. 37) while a 2001 estimate put Australian membership at 70,000.(Giles & 25 July 2001, p. 014) A sociology masters thesis from 1964 estimated U.S. membership at 300,000 to 500,000 and world membership as between 1 and 2 million.(Crow 1964, pp. 2, 16) Benton Johnson updated the metrics to arrive at a figure of 48,000 to 190,000 for the United States alone.(Johnson 1995, pp. 43–44) George Chryssides states that membership numbers are uncertain, giving an estimate for the United States during 1998 as ranging from 10,000 to 100,000 and a worldwide membership probably three times that figure.(Chryssides 2001b, pp. 330–331) The World Christian Encyclopediashows the group in the United States growing from 100,000 in 1970 to 270,000 in 1990, while during the same period, Australian membership declined from 150,000 to 100,000.(Barrett, Kurian & Johnson 2001[broken anchor], pp. 85, 785) A 2022 source cited a worldwide decline of 38% in the number of ministers and up to a 40% decline in members since 1980.(Kropp-Ehrig 2022, p. 497) Figures from other sources fall within this same wide range.
1 2 Montgomery, RM. (1935). A Note on Acts of Parliament dealing with the Denial of the Trinity. Transactions of the Unitarian Historical Society 6 (3): 209.
↑ Laursen, JC, & Nederman, JC. (2016). Heresy in transition: Transforming ideas of heresy in Medieval and Early Modern Europe. Ashgate Publishing, Routlege. ISBN 978-0-7546-5428-5 (hbk)
↑ Willmore, Hannah Lynn, "Perpetuating the stereotype: dramatization and the portrayal of cults in fictional media" (2021). Undergraduate Honors Thesis Collection. 575. https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/ugtheses/575
1 2 Martin, E., & Silverstone, P. (2013). How Much Child Sexual Abuse is “Below the Surface,” and Can We Help Adults Identify it Early?. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 15(4): 58. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00058
↑ Long, J. (1902). October 1902. In: The Journal of John Long. Oldstone, Mucklamore. https://www.tellingthetruth.info/publications_johnlong/1longjohn.php#1872October 1902: “On the next Lord’s day we both agreed to have the Lord’s Supper, not desiring to make a new sect, but to obey God.” “An assembly is not sectarian when open to give and take fellowship with all the Lord’s people, Num. 9:14.” April 1903: “At that time, Thomas Craig joined us, and we had a visit from William Irvine; he wanted to ask my advice about the work for he was in a strait between two as to whether he should go from the work as leader; and labour for God independently in a new district; as he shrank back from forming a new mission or sect; and the work and workers at that time were very scattered and disorganized. He was very downcast, and disheartened and humbled before God: he said to me whatever they would do, he would serve the Lord.” “I encouraged him not to forsake the work which resulted very largely as the outcome of his own testimony: but to call a Conference; and get the workers united together; and form the young converts into assemblies where they could get spiritual food, but to be open and unsectarian in attitude towards all other sects, missions and persons; at the same setting before them an example of Godly living, and obedience and conformity to the Word of God.”
↑ McClung, W. (1926). January 21, 1926, p. 11. Auckland Star. Wilson McClung re Cooney Camp.
↑ Lim, W.S.H. (2021). Antitrinitarianism. In: Sgarbi, M. (eds) Encyclopedia of Renaissance Philosophy. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02848-4_990-1
↑ von Harnack, Adolf (1894-03-01). "History of Dogma". [In the 2nd century,] Jesus was either regarded as the man whom God hath chosen, in whom the Deity or the Spirit of God dwelt, and who, after being tested, was adopted by God and invested with dominion, (Adoptionist Christology); or Jesus was regarded as a heavenly spiritual being (the highest after God) who took flesh, and again returned to heaven after the completion of his work on earth (pneumatic Christology)
↑ In England, Edward Wightman was burned at the stake in 1613 for believing in non-Trinitarianisn, believers baptism, and a low Christology (i.e. that Jesus Christ was created as perfect by God but was not God), and that the state Church of England only partially practiced true Christianity. He was the last person executed for heresy in the country. See: Bodleian Library, MS Ashmole, "A True Relation of the Commissions", p 5.
↑ In Scotland, Thomas Aikenhead was executed in 1697 on a charge of blasphemy under the Blasphemy Act 1661 and Blasphemy Act 1695. He was prosecuted for denying the trinity, believing God and creation were “but one thing.” See: A Complete Collection of State Trials and Proceedings for High Treason and Other Crimes and Misdemeanors from the Earliest Period to the Year 1783, with Notes and Other Illustrations. Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown. 1816.
↑ Corporation Act 1661, the Test Act 1673, and the Test Act 1678 required civil and military officers in England and Ireland to swear allegiance to the Church of England and receive Anglican communion. Ireland’s Penal Laws similarly enforced the Church of Ireland, while in Scotland, religious tests began with the Church Jurisdiction Act of 1567, followed by the Scottish Test Act 1681, and later university subscription requirements to the Westminster Confession of Faith. The communion requirement for office was first repealed in Ireland in 1780 (19 & 20 Geo. III c. 6 (Ireland)) and later in England and Wales by the Sacramental Test Act 1828. The original English Test Acts were formally repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1863, the Parliamentary Oaths Act 1866, and the Promissory Oaths Act 1871.
1 2 Fisher, D. (No date - ccirca 1983). Letter to Fred Miller from DONALD FISHER (brother worker). Retrieved from: https://www.tellingthetruth.info/workers_later/fisherdon-history.php
↑ Preecs, B. (1983). 'Two by Twos:' Victims of Anonymous Cult? The Spokesman Review. Spokane, Washington. Retrieved from: https://www.tellingthetruth.info/newspapers/1982-83.php#LOSANGELES
↑ Full quote: “Another expression he was fond of using in the first days was: "Jesus was a common man." And although at first to our Pharisaic ears, it sounded very irreverent and repulsive (so much so that some would-be-grandees, who in other respects were a bit interested in the work, took great offense and from this and other causes walked no more with us), yet none of us could contradict or deny the simple fact; and admitting and thinking it over, and making it real had a very healthy and corrective affect on me at any rate, (all events) changing completely my conception of who and what Jesus was and is, from the fictitious "Gentleman Jesus" to the Jesus of the New Testament, whom the "common people heard him gladly" and who had always been, both at home and abroad, from cradle to grave, the poorest and lowliest.” Pattison, Goodhand (1898). The Early Days. Cloughjordan, Ireland: 1898. pp.Retrieved from: https://workersect.org/pattison01.pdf
↑ “Another expression he was fond of using in the first days was: ‘Jesus was a common man.’ And although at first to our Pharisaic ears, it sounded very irreverent and repulsive (so much so that some would-be-grandees, who in other respects were a bit interested in the work, took great offense and from this and other causes walked no more with us, yet none of us could contradict or deny the simple fact; and admitting and thinking it over, and making it real had a very healthy and corrective affect on me at any rate, (all events) changing completely my conception of who and what Jesus was and is, from the fictitious ‘Gentleman Jesus’ to the Jesus of the New Testament, whom the ‘common people heard him gladly’ and who had always been, both at home and abroad, from cradle to grave, the poorest and lowliest.” Pattison, Goodhand (1898).
1 2 3 4 “The fellowship's views… are those commonly held by conservative Christian groups. So are their positions on… the atonement through [Christ’s] death on the cross, published statements of the movement's critics to the contrary notwithstanding.” “Rule's strongly polemical evaluation, written from a conservative Dispen-sationalist viewpoint, charges the adherents of the fellowship with teaching that "the Lord Jesus Christ had sinful flesh in him that needed to be overcome"; that they have "no room for the precious atoning blood of Christ as the ground of salvation"; and that they ignore "the sovereign work of the Holy Spirit in the souls of men" (The Cooneyites or "Go-Preachers" and Their Doctrines, pp. 18-20). Adherents of the movement reject these charges as unwarranted misrepresentations." (The Cooneyites or "Go-Preachers" and Their Doctrines, pp. 18-20). Adherents of the movement reject these charges as unwarranted misrepresentations.” Piepkorn, Arthur Carl (1972) "Brief Studies," Concordia Theological Monthly: Vol. 43, Article 4. Available at: https://scholar.csl.edu/ctm/vol43/iss1/4
↑ According to Long (1906), “it was said that they did not believe in the Atonement, but that was not true, as was manifest in their belief and obedience in the Lord’s supper.”
↑ Piepkorn (1972) writes that the community was accused of ignoring the sovereign work of the Holy Spirit in peoples lives, but rejected this as an unwarranted accusation
↑ Jaenen, Cornelius. (2003). The Apostles' Doctrine and Fellowship: a documentary history of the early church and revisionist movements. Legus Publishing, Ottawa, Ontario. ISBN1-894508-48-3
↑ Jaenen, Cornelius. (2003). The Apostles' Doctrine and Fellowship: a documentary history of the early church and revisionist movements. Legus Publishing, Ottawa, Ontario. ISBN1-894508-48-3
↑ Jaenen, Cornelius. (2003). The Apostles' Doctrine and Fellowship: a documentary history of the early church and revisionist movements. Legus Publishing, Ottawa, Ontario. ISBN1-894508-48-3
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(I.R. staff) (22 January 1903). "The 'Pilgrims' or 'Tramps.' A Hot Time for Enniskillen. The 'Damnation Army.' Their Ideas of Persecution". The Impartial Reporter and Farmers Journal. Enniskillin, Ireland.
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(I.R. staff) (5 August 1909). "The Tramp Preachers. Mr. Edward Cooney's Invective. A Torrent of Denunciation. All Creeds Going to Hell (But Those Who Think With Him). Scene at Crocknacrieve. Mr. Edward Cooney Speaks. Denunciation of all the Churches. The Clergy, the Devil and Sabbath Schools". The Impartial Reporter and Farmers Journal. Enniskillin, Ireland.
(I.R. staff) (7 October 1909). "The Tramps. The 'Jesus Way.' Do They Follow It?". The Impartial Reporter and Farmers Journal. Enniskillin, Ireland.
(I.R. staff) (14 July 1910). "Tramp Preachers' Convention Opens at Crocknacrieve. Address by Mr. Geo. Walker. Some Local Reminiscences". The Impartial Reporter and Farmers Journal. Enniskillin, Ireland.
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(I.I. staff) (14 November 1907). "Derry Tramp Apostles". The Irish Independent. Dublin, Ireland.
(I.I. staff) (17 October 1908). "Pilgrims' Presence Resented. Week of Turmoil in Swords. Origin of Outbreak. Window Smashing, Bands, Disorder and 'Religion". The Irish Independent. Dublin, Ireland.
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(L.D.H. staff) (29 August 1910). "'Go Preachers' Were Attacked: Their Religion Causes Free Fight in Prince Edward Island". Lethbridge Daily Herald. Lethbridge, Alberta.
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