Restorationism, also known as Restitutionism or Christian primitivism, is a religious perspective according to which the early beliefs and practices of the followers of Jesus were either lost or adulterated after his death and required a "restoration".[1][2][3] It is a view that often "seeks to correct faults or deficiencies, in other branches of Christianity, by appealing to the primitive church as normative model".[1]:635
Efforts to restore an earlier, purer form of Christianity are frequently a response to denominationalism. As Rubel Shelly put it, "the motive behind all restoration movements is to tear down the walls of separation by a return to the practice of the original, essential and universal features of the Christian religion."[4]:29 Different groups have tried to implement the restorationist vision in a variety of ways; for instance, some have focused on the structure and practice of the church, others on the ethical life of the church, and others on the direct experience of the Holy Spirit in the life of the believer.[1]:635–638 The relative importance given to the restoration ideal, and the extent to which the full restoration of the early church is believed to have been achieved, also varies among groups.
The term has been used in reference to the Stone–Campbell Movement in the United States,[2]:225–226 and has been also used by more recent groups, describing their goal to re-establish Christianity in its original form, such as some anti-denominational Charismatic Restorationists, which arose in the 1970s in the United Kingdom and elsewhere.[13][14]
Uses of the term
The terms restorationism, restorationist and restoration are used in several senses within Christianity. "Restorationism" in the sense of "Christian primitivism" refers to the attempt to correct perceived shortcomings of the current church by using the primitive church as a model to reconstruct early Christianity,[1]:635 and has also been described as "practicing church the way it is perceived to have been done in the New Testament".[2]:217
Restorationism is called "apostolic" as representing the form of Christianity that the Twelve Apostles followed. These themes arise early in church history, first appearing in the works of Iranaeus,[1]:635 and appeared in some movements during the Middle Ages. It was expressed to varying degrees in the theology of the Protestant Reformation,[2]:217 and Protestantism has been described as "a form of Christian restorationism, though some of its forms – for example the Churches of Christ or the Baptists – are more restorationist than others".[15]:81–82
A number of historical movements within Christianity may be described as "restoration movements", including the Glasites in Scotland and England, the independent church led by James Haldane and Robert Haldane in Scotland, the American Restoration Movement, the Landmark Baptists and the Mormons.[16]:659pf A variety of more contemporary movements have also been described as "restorationist".[17][18] Restorationism has been described as a basic component of some Pentecostal movements such as the Assemblies of God.[19]:4–5 The terms "Restorationism movement" and "Restorationist movement" have also been applied to the British New Church Movement.[20]:82–83
Capitalized, the term is also used as a synonym for the American Restoration Movement.[2]:225–226[21] The term "restorationism" can also include the belief that the Jewish people must be restored to the promised land in fulfillment of biblical prophecy before the Second Coming of Christ.[22]:3Christian restorationism is generally used to describe the 19th century movement based on this belief, though the term Christian Zionism is more commonly used to describe later forms. "Restorationism" is also used to describe a form of postmillennialism developed during the later half of the 20th century, which was influential among a number of charismatic groups and the British new church movement.[23]:57–58
The term primitive,[24] in contrast with other uses, refers to a basis in scholarship and research into the actual writings of the church fathers and other historical documents. Since written documents for the underground first-century church are sparse, the primitive church passed down its knowledge verbally. Elements of the primitive Christianity movement reject the patristic tradition of the prolific extrabiblical 2nd- and 3rd-century redaction of this knowledge (the Ante-Nicene Fathers), and instead attempt to reconstruct primitive church practices as they might have existed in the Apostolic Age. To do this, they revive practices found in the Old Testament. The term apostolic refers to a nonmainstream, often literal, apostolic succession or historical lineage tracing back to the Apostles and the Great Commission. These restorationist threads are sometimes regarded critically as being Judaizers in the Ebionite tradition.[25]
Historical models
The restoration ideal has been interpreted and applied in a variety of ways.[1]:635 Four general historical models can be identified based on the aspect of early Christianity that the individuals and groups involved were attempting to restore.[1]:635 These are:
Gospel primitivism may be best seen in the theology of Martin Luther.[1]:638 Luther was not, in the strictest sense, a restorationist because he saw human effort to restore the church as works righteousness and was sharply critical of other Reformation leaders who were attempting to do so.[1]:638 On the other hand, he was convinced that the gospel message had been obscured by the Roman Catholic Church of the time.[1]:638 He also rejected church traditions he considered contrary to Scripture and insisted on scripture as the sole authority for the church.[29]:23
These models are not mutually exclusive, but overlap; for example, the Pentecostal movement sees a clear link between ethical primitivism and experiential primitivism.[1]:635,637
While these pre-reformation movements did presage and sometimes discussed a break with Rome and papal authority, they also provoked restorationist movements within the church, such as the councils of Constance[34] and Basle,[35] which were held in the first half of the 15th century.
Preachers at the time regularly harangued delegates to these conferences regarding simony, venality, lack of chastity and celibacy, and the holding of multiple benefices.[36] The lack of success of the restorationist movements led, arguably, to the Protestant Reformation.[30]
The Protestant Reformation came about through an impulse to repair the Church and return it to what the reformers saw as its original biblical structure, belief, and practice,[37] and was motivated by a sense that "the medieval church had allowed its traditions to clutter the way to God with fees and human regulations and thus to subvert the gospel of Christ."[29]:21 At the heart of the Reformation was an emphasis on the principle of "scripture alone" (sola scriptura).[29]:22–23
As a result, the authority of church tradition, which had taken practical precedence over scripture, was rejected.[29]:22 The Reformation was not a monolithic movement, but consisted of at least three identifiable sub-currents.[29]:21 One was centered in Germany, one was centered in Switzerland, and the third was centered in England.[29]:21 While these movements shared some common concerns, each had its own particular emphasis.[29]:21
The Lutheran approach can be described as one of "reformation," seeking "to reform and purify the historic, institutional church while at the same time preserving as much of the tradition as possible."[29]:21 The Lutheran Churches traditionally sees themselves as the "main trunk of the historical Christian Tree" founded by Christ and the Apostles, holding that during the Reformation, at the Council of Trent, the Church of Rome fell away.[38][39] As such, the Augsburg Confession, the Lutheran confession of faith, teaches that "the faith as confessed by Luther and his followers is nothing new, but the true catholic faith, and that their churches represent the true catholic or universal church".[40] When the Lutherans presented the Augsburg Confession to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, they explained "that each article of faith and practice was true first of all to Holy Scripture, and then also to the teaching of the church fathers and the councils".[40]
In contrast, the Reformed approach can be described as one of "restoration," seeking "to restore the essence and form of the primitive church based on biblical precedent and example; tradition received scant respect."[29]:21 While Luther focused on the question "How can we find forgiveness of sins?", the early Reformed theologians turned to the Bible for patterns that could be used to replace traditional forms and practices.[29]:24Heinrich Bullinger and Martin Bucer in particular emphasized the restoration of biblical patterns.[29]:29–31John Calvin reflected an intermediate position between that of Luther and Reformed theologians such as Zwingli, stressing biblical precedents for church governance, but as a tool to more effectively proclaim the gospel rather than as ends in themselves.[29]:291,22
Luther opposed efforts to restore "biblical forms and structures,"[29]:112 because he saw human efforts to restore the church as works righteousness.[1]:638 He did seek the "marks of the true church," but was concerned that by focusing on forms and patterns could lead to the belief that by "restoring outward forms alone one has restored the essence."[29]:117 Thus, Luther believed that restoring the gospel was the first step in renewing the church, rather than restoring biblical forms and patterns.[29]:118 In this sense, Luther can be described as a gospel restorationist, even though his approach was very different from that of other restorationists.[1]:638[29]:121
Protestant groups have generally accepted history as having some "jurisdiction" in Christian faith and life; the question has been the extent of that jurisdiction.[41]:5 A commitment to history and primitivism are not mutually exclusive; while some groups attempt to give full jurisdiction to the primitive church, for others the apostolic "first times" are given only partial jurisdiction.[41]:5,6
Church of England and Caroline Divines
Perhaps the most primitivist minded of the Protestant Reformation era were a group of scholars within the Church of England known as the Caroline Divines, who flourished in the 1600s during the reigns of Charles I and Charles II. They regularly appealed to the Primitive Church as the basis for their reforms.[42] Unlike many other Christian Primitivists, the Church of the England and the Caroline Divines did not subject Scriptural interpretation to individual human reason, but rather to the hermeneutical consensus of the Church Fathers, holding to the doctrine of Prima Scriptura as opposed to Sola Scriptura.[43] They did not hold to the separatist ecclesiology of many primitivist groups, but rather saw themselves as working within the historic established church to return it to its foundation in Scripture and the patristic tradition.[42] Among the Caroline Divines were men like Archbishop William Laud, Bishop Jeremy Taylor, Deacon Nicholas Ferrar and the Little Gidding Community and others.
Methodism began in the 1700s as a Christian Primitivist movement within the Church of England. John Wesley and his brother Charles, the founders of the movement, were high church Anglican priests in the vein of the Caroline Divines, who had a deep respect for the Primitive Church, which they generally defined as the Church before the Council Of Nicea.[44] Unlike many other Christian Primitivists, the Wesleys and the early Methodists did not subject Scriptural interpretation to individual human reason, but rather to the hermeneutical consensus of the Ante-Nicene Fathers, holding to a view of authority more akin to Prima Scriptura rather than Sola Scriptura.[45]
They did not hold to the separatist ecclesiology of many primitivist groups, but rather saw themselves as working within the historic established church to return it to its foundation in Scripture and the tradition of the pre-Nicene Church.[46] John Wesley very regularly asserted Methodism's commitment to the Primitive Church, saying, "From a child I was taught to love and reverence the Scripture, the oracles of God; and, next to these, to esteem the primitive Fathers, the writers of the first three centuries. Next after the primitive church, I esteemed our own, the Church of England, as the most Scriptural national Church in the world."[47][48]
And, "Methodism, so called, is the old religion, the religion of the Bible, the religion of the primitive Church, the religion of the Church of England."[49] On his epitaph is written, "This GREAT LIGHT arose (By the Singular providence of GOD) To enlighten THESE NATIONS, And to revive, enforce, and defend, The Pure Apostolical DOCTRINES and PRACTICES of THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH…"[50]
Separate Baptists
James Robinson Graves
During the First Great Awakening, a movement developed among the Baptists known as Separate Baptists. Two themes of this movement were the rejection of creeds and "freedom in the Spirit."[29]:65 The Separate Baptists saw scripture as the "perfect rule" for the church.[29]:66 While they turned to the Bible for a structural pattern for the church, they did not insist on complete agreement on the details of that pattern.[29]:67 This group originated in New England, but was especially strong in the South where the emphasis on a biblical pattern for the church grew stronger.[29]:67
In the last half of the 18th century it spread to the western frontier of Kentucky and Tennessee, where the Stone and Campbell movements would later take root.[29]:68 The development of the Separate Baptists in the southern frontier helped prepare the ground for the Restoration Movement, as the membership of both the Stone and Campbell groups drew heavily from among the ranks of the Separate Baptists.[29]:67
Separate Baptist restorationism also contributed to the development of the Landmark Baptists in the same area at about the same time as the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement. Under the leadership of James Robinson Graves, this group looked for a precise blueprint for the primitive church, believing that any deviation from that blueprint would keep one from being part of the true church.[29]:68
Groups arising in the era of the Second Great Awakening
The ideal of restoring a "primitive" form of Christianity grew in popularity in the United States after the American Revolution.[29]:89–94 This desire to restore a purer form of Christianity played a role in the development of many groups during this period, known as the Second Great Awakening, including the Mormons, Baptists and Shakers.[29]:89 Several factors made the restoration sentiment particularly appealing during this time period.[29]:90–94
To immigrants in the early 19th century, the land in America seemed pristine, edenic and undefiled - "the perfect place to recover pure, uncorrupted and original Christianity" - and the tradition-bound European churches seemed out of place in this new setting.[29]:90
The new American democracy seemed equally fresh and pure, a restoration of the kind of just government that God intended.[29]:90,91
Many believed that the new nation would usher in a new millennial age.[29]:91,92
Independence from the traditional churches of Europe was appealing to many Americans who were enjoying a new political independence.[29]:92,93
A primitive faith based on the Bible alone promised a way to sidestep the competing claims of all the many denominations available and find assurance of being right without the security of an established national church.[29]:93
Camp meetings fueled the Second Great Awakening, which served as an "organizing process" that created "a religious and educational infrastructure" across the trans-Appalachian frontier that encompassed social networks, a religious journalism that provided mass communication, and church related colleges.[51]:368
The American Restoration Movement aimed to restore the church and sought "the unification of all Christians in a single body patterned after the church of the New Testament."[4]:54 While the Restoration Movement developed from several independent efforts to go back to apostolic Christianity, two groups that independently developed similar approaches to the Christian faith were particularly important to its development.[52]:27–32 The first, led by Barton W. Stone began at Cane Ridge, Bourbon County, Kentucky and called themselves simply Christians. The second began in western Pennsylvania and Virginia, now West Virginia, and was led by Thomas Campbell and his son, Alexander Campbell. They used the name Disciples of Christ.
Barton W. Stone
The Campbell movement was characterized by a "systematic and rational reconstruction" of the early church, in contrast to the Stone movement which was characterized by radical freedom and lack of dogma.[29]:106–108 Despite their differences, the two movements agreed on several critical issues.[29]:108 Both saw restoring apostolic Christianity as a means of hastening the millennium.[29]:108 Both also saw restoring the early church as a route to Christian freedom.[29]:108 Both believed that unity among Christians could be achieved by using apostolic Christianity as a model.[29]:108
They were united, among other things, in the belief that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God; that Christians should celebrate the Lord's Supper on the first day of each week; and that baptism of adult believers by immersion in water is a necessary condition for salvation. Because the founders wanted to abandon all denominational labels, they used the biblical names for the followers of Jesus that they found in the Bible.[53]:27 The commitment of both movements to restoring the early church and to uniting Christians was enough to motivate a union between many in the two movements.[54]:8,9
With the merger, there was the challenge of what to call the new movement. Clearly, finding a biblical, non-sectarian name was important. Stone wanted to continue to use the name "Christians." Alexander Campbell insisted upon "Disciples of Christ". As a result, both names were used.[53]:27–28[55]:125
The Restoration Movement began during, and was greatly influenced by, the Second Great Awakening.[51]:368 While the Campbells resisted what they saw as the spiritual manipulation of the camp meetings, the Southern phase of the Awakening "was an important matrix of Barton Stone's reform movement" and shaped the evangelistic techniques used by both Stone and the Campbells.[51]:368
John Thomas (April 12, 1805 – March 5, 1871), was a devout convert to the Restoration Movement after a shipwreck at sea on his emigration to America brought to focus his inadequate understanding of the Bible, and what would happen to him at death. This awareness caused him to devote his life to the study of the Bible and he promoted interpretations of it which were at variance with the mainstream Christian views the Restoration Movement held. In particular he questioned the nature of man.
He held a number of debates with one of the leaders of the movement, Alexander Campbell, on these topics but eventually agreed to stop because he found the practice bestowed no further practical merits to his personal beliefs and it had the potential to create division. He later determined that salvation was dependent upon having the theology he had developed for baptism to be effective for salvation and published an "Confession and Abjuration" of his previous position on March 3, 1847. He was also rebaptised.
Following his abjuration and rebaptism he went to England on a preaching tour in June 1848 including Reformation Movement churches,[59] Although his abjuration and his disfellowship in America were reported in the British churches magazines[60] certain churches in the movement still allowed him to present his views. Thomas also gained a hearing in Unitarian and Adventist churches through his promotion of the concept of "independence of thought" with regards to interpreting the Bible.
Through a process of creed setting and division the Christadelphian movement emerged with a distinctive set of doctrines incorporating Adventism, anti-trinitarianism, the belief that God is a "substantial and corporeal" being, objection to military service, a lay-membership with full participation by all members, and other doctrines consistent with the spirit of the Restorationist movement.[61] One consequence of objection to military service was the adoption of the name Christadelphians to distinguish this small community of believers and to be granted exemption from military service in the American Civil War.[61]
The New Church was founded on the basis of the theology of Emanuel Swedenborg.[8] As such, it is often known as the Swedenborgian Church.[8] The New Church's view of God is that "Jesus is God incarnate, not (as certain interpretations of the traditional Christian trinity contend) an emanation of the Godhead."[62] The New Church propounds the doctrine of Correspondence, which teaches that "Every word or fact of the Bible corresponded to a spiritual truth or mystical truth."[62] Additionally, The New Church teaches that "Objects in the physical world have spiritual correspondences."[63]
The Catholic Apostolic Church (Irvingian Church) was founded according to the theology of Edward Irving (1792–1834), who taught that "God could work miracles in His Church as easily now as two thousand years ago."[64] Belonging to the Restorationist branch of Christianity, the Irvingian Churches teach that they "exercise the charismata of the Apostolic age".[5] The church was organised in 1835 with the fourfold ministry of "apostles, prophets, evangelists, and pastors."[65][5]
Adherents to the Latter Day Saint movement believe that founder Joseph Smith was a prophet of God, chosen to restore the primitive, apostolic church established by Jesus. Like other restorationist groups, members believe that the church and priesthood established by Jesus were withdrawn from the Earth after the end of the apostolic age and before the First Council of Nicaea in 325.[70]
Unlike other reformers, who based their movements on their own interpretations of the Bible, Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery held that they were visited by John the Baptist to receive the Aaronic Priesthood. This restoration authorized members to receive revelation from God in order to restore the original apostolic organization lost after the events of the New Testament.[70] According to Allen and Hughes, "[n]o group used the language of 'restoration' more consistently and more effectively than did the [Latter Day Saints] ... early Mormons seemed obsessed with restoring the ancient church of God."[29]:94
According to Smith, God appeared to him in 1820, instructing him that the creeds of the churches of the day were corrupted.[71] In addition to restoring the primitive church, Smith claimed to receive new and ongoing revelations. In 1830, he published The Book of Mormon, with him and witnesses declaring to be a translation through divine means from the Golden Plates he obtained from an angel.[citation needed]
Some among the Churches of Christ have attributed the restorationist character of the Latter Day Saints movement to the influence of Sidney Rigdon, who was associated with the Campbell movement in Ohio but left it and became a close friend of Joseph Smith.[29]:95[72]:544,545 Neither the Mormons nor the early Restoration Movement leaders invented the idea of "restoration"; it was a popular theme of the time that had developed independently of both, and Mormonism and the Restoration Movement represent different expressions of that common theme.[29]:95[72]:544,545
The two groups had very different approaches to the restoration ideal.[72]:545 The Campbell movement combined it with Enlightenment rationalism, "precluding emotionalism, spiritualism, or any other phenomena that could not be sustained by rational appeals to the biblical text."[72]:545 The Latter Day Saints combined it with "the spirit of nineteenth-century Romanticism" and, as a result, "never sought to recover the forms and structures of the ancient church as ends in themselves" but "sought to restore the golden age, recorded in both Old Testament and New Testament, when God broke into human history and communed directly with humankind."[72]:545 Mormons gave priority to current revelation.[citation needed] Primitive observances of "appointed times" like Sabbath were secondary to continuing revelation, similarly to the progressive revelation held by some non-restorationist Christian theologians.[citation needed]
The "Great Apostasy", or loss of the original church Jesus established, has been cited with historical evidence of changes in Christian doctrine over time, scriptures prophesying of a coming apostasy before the last days (particularly 2 Thessalonians 2:1–3, 2 Timothy 4:3–4 and Amos 8:11–12) and corruption within the early churches that led to the necessity of the Protestant Reformation, which is seen as an important step towards the development of protected freedoms and speech required for a full restoration to be possible.[73]
Adventism is a Christian eschatological belief that looks for the imminent Second Coming of Jesus to inaugurate the Kingdom of God. This view involves the belief that Jesus will return to receive those who have died in Christ and those who are awaiting his return, and that they must be ready when he returns. Adventists are considered to be both restorationists and conservativeProtestants.[74][75]
The Millerites were the most well-known family of the Adventist movements. They emphasized apocalyptic teachings anticipating the end of the world, and did not look for the unity of Christendom but busied themselves in preparation for Christ's return. Millerites sought to restore a prophetic immediacy and uncompromising biblicism that they believed had once existed but had long been rejected by mainstream Protestant and Catholic churches. From the Millerites descended the Seventh-day Adventists and the Advent Christian Church.
The Seventh-day Adventist Church grew out of the Adventist movement, in particular the Millerites. The Seventh-day Adventist Church is the largest of several Adventist groups which arose from the Millerite movement of the 1840s in upstate New York, a phase of the Second Great Awakening. Important to the Seventh-day Adventist movement is a belief in progressive revelation,[76] teaching that the Christian life and testimony is intended to be typified by the Spirit of Prophecy, as explained in the writings of Ellen G. White.
Much of the theology of the Seventh-day Adventist Church corresponds to Protestant Christian teachings such as the Trinity and the infallibility of Scripture. Distinctive teachings include the unconscious state of the dead and the doctrine of an investigative judgment. The church is also known for its emphasis on diet and health, its holistic understanding of the person, its promotion of religious liberty, and its conservative principles and lifestyle.
The Worldwide Church of God arose from the Seventh Day churches. The personal ministry of Herbert W. Armstrong became the Radio Church of God, which became the Worldwide Church of God. It later splintered into many other churches and groups when the Worldwide Church of God disassociated itself with the Restoration movements and made major attempts to join the Protestant branch of Christianity. The largest of these groups, the Living Church of God and the United Church of God, continue in the tradition of the Worldwide Church of God as it was under the leadership of Herbert W. Armstrong.
The Advent Christian Church is unaffiliated with Seventh-day Adventism, but considers itself the second "of six Christian denominations that grew out of the ministry of William Miller".[77] As a "first-day" body of Adventist Christians established by The Advent Christian General Conference in 1860, the church's beliefs include "conditional immortality" and a form of "soul sleep".
In the 1870s, a Bible study group led by Charles Taze Russell formed into what was eventually called the Bible Student movement. Russell's congregations did not consider him to be the founder of a new religion,[78] but that he helped in restoring true Christianity from the apostasy that Jesus and the Apostle Paul foretold. They believed that other Churches departed in a Great Apostasy from the original faith on major points, and that the original faith could be restored through a generally literal interpretation of the Bible and a sincere commitment to follow its teachings. They focused on several key doctrinal points that they considered a return to "primitive Christianity",[79] derived from their interpretation of the Bible, including active proselytization; strict neutrality in political affairs;[80] abstinence from warfare;[81] a belief in the imminent manifestation of the Kingdom of God (or World to Come) on Earth, and a rejection of trinitarianism, the immortality of the soul, and the definition of Hell as a place of eternal torment.[82]
The Plymouth Brethren is a conservative, Evangelical, restorationist movement whose origin can be traced to Dublin, Ireland, in 1827.[84][85][86] The title, "The Brethren", is one that many of their number are comfortable with, in that the Bible designates all believers as "brethren". The first English assembly was in Plymouth in 1831,[87] where the movement became well known and assemblies diffused throughout Europe and beyond.[88]
They became known as "the brethren from Plymouth", and were soon simply called "Plymouth Brethren". By 1848, divergence of practice and belief led to the development of two separate branches. The rift was caused primarily by a difference of opinions between John Nelson Darby and Benjamin Wills Newton in regards to eschatology. Despite more divisions, assemblies are still often generalized into two main categories: "Open Brethren" and "Exclusive Brethren".[91]John Duncan criticized the Brethren movement saying "To end sectarianism, the Plymouth Brethren began by making a new sect, and that sect, of all sects, the most sectarian".[92][bettersourceneeded]
Pentecostalism began primarily as a restoration movement that focused on the "experiential" aspect of the early church.[93] The early pioneers of the Pentecostal movement sought to restore the work and power of the Holy Spirit to the church, which they felt had been lost early on after the Apostolic Age. Oneness Pentecostals, in particular, continue to have a lot of restorationist themes present in their movement. Many Oneness Pentecostals see their movement as being a restoration of the Apostolic Church, which is why many of them refer to themselves as "apostolic" or to their movement as the "Apostolic Pentecostal" movement.
During the charismatic movement of the 1960s and 1970s, which focused on the transformation of the individual, some leaders formed what has become known as the Charismatic Restorationist Movement. These leaders, of whom Arthur Wallis, David Lillie and Cecil Cousen were at the forefront, focused on the nature of the church and shared a distinctive view that authentic church order was being restored to the whole church. This authentic church order centred on what is referred to as the "fivefold ministries", as listed in Ephesians 4:11: Apostles, Prophets, Evangelists, Teachers and Pastors. [94]
Although the Charismatic Movement brought the Pentecostal gifts to the denominational churches, these restorationists considered denominationalism unbiblical, and shared a conviction that God would cause the church to be directly organized and empowered by the holy spirit. The movement has thousands of adherents worldwide, and notable church networks include Newfrontiers led by Terry Virgo, Salt and Light Ministries International led by Barney Coombs, and the Ichthus Christian Fellowship led by Faith and Roger Forster.[95]
The British leaders of charismatic restorationism mutually recognised a parallel movement in the United States, centered on the Fort Lauderdale Five; Derek Prince, Don Basham, Bob Mumford, Charles Simpson and Ern Baxter. This movement became known as the Shepherding movement and was the subject of significant controversy in the mid-1970s. The movement left a significant legacy through its influence on contemporary ministries International Churches of Christ, Maranatha Campus Ministries and Great Commission International.
More recently another form of charismatic restorationism with a similar recognition of the apostolic office has emerged in the form of the Apostolic-Prophetic Movement, centered on the Kansas City Prophets. Leading proponents of the movement include C. Peter Wagner, Rick Joyner, Mike Bickle and Lou Engle.
The Church of God (Restoration) is a Christian denomination that was founded in the 1980s by Daniel (Danny) Layne.[96] In a booklet written by Layne in the early 1980s, he claimed to be an ex-heroin addict who spent years dealing drugs and living a life of crime and sin on the streets of San Francisco. Layne was originally raised in the Church of God (Anderson), where his father was a minister. Layne began preaching in the Church of God (Guthrie, OK) after his conversion.
One tenet of this group is that they are ordained by both prophecy and divine command to restore the church of God as it was in the Book of Acts.[97] Most of Daniel Layne's beliefs concerning the book of Revelation originated from some ministers who had left the Church of God (Anderson) reformation movement thirty or so years earlier. This teaching is upheld by the official eschatology, which is a form of church historicism. This Church of God (Restoration)[98] teaches that the 7th Trumpet in the book of the Revelation began to sound around the year 1980 when Daniel Layne was saved, alleging that there was a general discontent among many of its current adherents that were in various Churches of God at that time. A variation of this "Seventh Seal message"[99] had been taught in other Churches of God for approximately 50 years prior to this point.
Iglesia ni Cristo began in the Philippines and was incorporated by Felix Y. Manalo on July 27, 1914.[100][101] The church professes to be the reestablishment of the original church founded by Jesus Christ and teaches that the original church was apostatized. It does not teach the doctrine of the Trinity or the divinity of Jesus.[102]Iglesia ni Cristo does not subscribe to the term Restoration or claim to be a part of the Restoration Movement.[citation needed]
La Luz del Mundo (full name: Iglesia del Dios Vivo, Columna y Apoyo de la Verdad, La Luz del Mundo) was founded in Mexico on 6 April 1926 by Eusebio Joaquín González (14 August 1896 – 9 June 1964), who claimed that God called him to be an apostle of Jesus Christ and renamed him Aarón. Joaquín claimed that he was commissioned to restore the primitive Christian church of the first century CE. The church, headquartered in Guadalajara, Mexico, asserts that all other forms of Christianity are corruptions that arose after the last of the original apostles died, and rejects traditional Christian doctrines such as trinitarianism, original sin, veneration of saints, and the divinity of Jesus.
It continues to claim that it is the restoration of primitive Christianity and that its leaders, including Aarón Joaquín, his son, Samuel Joaquín Flores (1937 – 2014), and his grandson, Naasón Joaquín García (born 1969), who is the church's international director, are apostles responsible for the restoration, without whom it would be impossible for people to truly believe in Jesus and be saved.
The Apostolic Catholic Church started as a mainstream Catholic lay organization that was founded in Hermosa Bataan in the early 1970s by Maria Virginia P. Leonzon Vda. De Teruel.[103] In 1991, the organisation and the Roman Catholic Church had a schism; due to varying issues, it formally separated itself from the Roman Catholic Church, when John Florentine Teruel was consecrated as a patriarch and registered the church as a Protestant and Independent Catholic denomination.[103] The Church describes itself as a Conservative Church which aims to bring back Ancient Catholic Church traditions removed by previous councils and Popes.
The local churches are a Christian movement influenced by the teachings of J.N. Darby, Watchman Nee and Witness Lee and associated with the Living Stream Ministry publishing house. Its members see themselves as separate from other Christian groups, denominations, and movements, part of what they sometimes call "The Lord's Recovery". One of the defining features of the local churches is their adherence to the principle that all Christians in a city or locality are automatically members of the one church in that locality. Another defining feature is the lack of an official organization or official name for the movement. Those in the local churches believe that to take a name would divide them from other believers. Thus, they often say they meet with "the church in [city name]" with the understanding that they are not the only church but belong to the same church as every believer in their city.[104]
Jesuism is the personal philosophy encompassing the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth and commitment or adherence to those teachings.[105] Jesuism is distinct from and sometimes opposed to mainstream Christianity, the organized religion based on the Christian Bible.[106] In particular, Jesuism is distinguished from the writings attributed to the Apostle Paul and from modern Church doctrine.[107][108] Jesuism is not necessarily critical of the Christian Bible or Church doctrine, but rather it does not affirm their authority over the teachings of Jesus. As a philosophy, Jesuism is characterized as naturalistic and rationalist, rejecting the conflict between faith and science.[109]
World Mission Society Church of God is a non-denominational Christian movement founded by Ahn Sahng-Hong in 1964. The church claims to be a restoration of the original Church of God and has teachings differing from other Christian denominations. After Ahn Sahng-hong died in February 1985, a group of people in Church of God Jesus Witnesses including the man Kim Joo-cheol and the woman Zahng Gil-jah wanted to re-introduce the concept of a "spiritual mother". In March 1985, they moved from Busan to Seoul. At a meeting in Seoul in June 1985, they discussed how to call Zahng Gil-jah, and established a church called Witnesses of Ahn Sahng-hong Church of God which is led by Kim Joo-cheol and Zahng Gil-jah. Two major new doctrines were codified:
Ahn Sahng-hong should be regarded as Jesus Christ who had already come, should be titled Christ Ahn Sahng-hong, and pursuant to a traditional trinitarian view of Christian hypostasis Ahn was consequently also The Holy Spirit, God the Father, and thus God. Zahng Gil-jah should be regarded as God the Mother, a female image of God, be titled Heavenly Mother, or simply Mother, and together with Ahn Sahng-hong be regarded as God.[110]
Anabaptism is a Christian movement which traces its origins to the Radical Reformation in the 16th century. Anabaptists believe that baptism is valid only when candidates freely confess their faith in Christ and request to be baptized. Commonly referred to as believer's baptism, it is opposed to baptism of infants, who are not able to make a conscious decision to be baptized.
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, professing that Jesus Christ was raised from the dead and is the Son of God, whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Hebrew Bible and chronicled in the New Testament. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with over 2.4 billion followers, comprising around 31.2% of the world population. Its adherents, known as Christians, are estimated to make up a majority of the population in 157 countries and territories.
A creed, also known as a confession of faith, a symbol, or a statement of faith, is a statement of the shared beliefs of a community which summarize its core tenets.
The Great Apostasy is a concept within Christianity to describe a perception that mainstream Christian Churches have fallen away from the original faith founded by Jesus and promulgated through his Twelve Apostles.
The Restoration Movement is a Christian movement that began on the United States frontier during the Second Great Awakening (1790–1840) of the early 19th century. The pioneers of this movement were seeking to reform the church from within and sought "the unification of all Christians in a single body patterned after the church of the New Testament."
Nondenominational Christianity consists of churches, and individual Christians, which typically distance themselves from the confessionalism or creedalism of other Christian communities by not formally aligning with a specific Christian denomination.
A Christian denomination is a distinct religious body within Christianity that comprises all church congregations of the same kind, identifiable by traits such as a name, particular history, organization, leadership, theological doctrine, worship style and, sometimes, a founder. It is a secular and neutral term, generally used to denote any established Christian church. Unlike a cult or sect, a denomination is usually seen as part of the Christian religious mainstream. Most Christian denominations refer to themselves as churches, whereas some newer ones tend to interchangeably use the terms churches, assemblies, fellowships, etc. Divisions between one group and another are defined by authority and doctrine; issues such as the nature of Jesus, the authority of apostolic succession, biblical hermeneutics, theology, ecclesiology, eschatology, and papal primacy may separate one denomination from another. Groups of denominations—often sharing broadly similar beliefs, practices, and historical ties—are sometimes known as "branches of Christianity". These branches differ in many ways, especially through differences in practices and belief.
The Churches of Christ, also commonly known as the Church of Christ, is a loose association of autonomous Christian congregations located around the world. Typically, their distinguishing beliefs are that of the necessity of baptism for salvation and the prohibition of musical instruments in worship. Many such congregations identify themselves as being nondenominational. The Churches of Christ arose in the United States from the Restoration Movement of 19th-century Christians who declared independence from denominations and traditional creeds. They sought "the unification of all Christians in a single body patterned after the original church described in the New Testament."
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Christian theology:
The theology of the Seventh-day Adventist Church resembles early Protestant Christianity, combining elements from Lutheran, Wesleyan-Arminian, and Anabaptist branches of Protestantism. Adventists believe in the infallibility of the Scripture's teaching regarding salvation, which comes from grace through faith in Jesus Christ. The 28 fundamental beliefs constitute the church's current doctrinal positions, but they are revisable under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, and are not a creed.
The expression "one true church" refers to an ecclesiological position asserting that Jesus gave his authority in the Great Commission solely to a particular visible Christian institutional church—what is commonly called a denomination. This view is maintained by the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox communion, the Assyrian Church of the East, the Ancient Church of the East, the Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, the Latter Day Saint movement, the Churches of Christ, and the Lutheran churches, as well as certain Baptists. Each of them maintains that their own specific institutional church (denomination) exclusively represents the one and only original church. The claim to the title of the "one true church" relates to the first of the Four Marks of the Church mentioned in the Nicene Creed: "one, holy, catholic, and apostolic church". As such, it also relates to claims of both catholicity and apostolic succession: asserting inheritance of the spiritual, ecclesiastical and sacramental authority and responsibility that Jesus Christ gave to the apostles.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Christianity:
Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that emphasizes justification of sinners by grace through faith alone, the priesthood of all believers, and the Bible as the sole infallible source of authority for Christian faith and practice. The five solae summarize the basic theological beliefs of mainstream Protestantism.
The Christians (Stone Movement) were a group arising during the Second Great Awakening of the early 19th century. The most prominent leader was Barton W. Stone. The group was committed to restoring primitive Christianity. It merged with the Disciples of Christ (Campbell Movement) in 1832 to form what is now described as the American Restoration Movement (also known as the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement.)
The Disciples of Christ (Campbell Movement) were a group arising during the Second Great Awakening of the early 19th century. The most prominent leaders were Thomas and Alexander Campbell. The group was committed to restoring primitive Christianity. It merged with the Christians (Stone Movement) in 1832 to form what is now described as the American Restoration Movement (also known as the Stone–Campbell Restoration Movement).
The Pillars of Adventism are landmark doctrines for Seventh-day Adventists. They are Bible doctrines that define who they are as a people of faith; doctrines that are "non-negotiables" in Adventist theology. The Seventh-day Adventist church teaches that these Pillars are needed to prepare the world for the second coming of Jesus Christ, and sees them as a central part of its own mission. Adventists teach that the Seventh-day Adventist Church doctrines were both a continuation of the reformation started in the 16th century and a movement of the end time rising from the Millerites, bringing God's final messages and warnings to the world.
Criticism of Protestantism covers critiques and questions raised about Protestantism, the Christian denominations which arose out of the Protestant Reformation. While critics may praise some aspects of Protestantism which are not unique to the various forms of Protestantism, Protestantism is faced with criticism mainly from the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, although Protestant denominations have also engaged in self-critique and criticized one another. According to both the Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodoxy, many major, foundational Protestant doctrines have been officially declared heretical.
Proto-Protestantism, also called pre-Protestantism, refers to individuals and movements that propagated various ideas later associated with Protestantism before 1517, which historians usually regard as the starting year for the Reformation era. The relationship between medieval sects and Protestantism is an issue that has been debated by historians.
References
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, entry on Restoration, Historical Models of
1 2 3 4 5 Gerard Mannion and Lewis S. Mudge, The Routledge companion to the Christian church, Routledge, 2008, ISBN0-415-37420-0, 9780415374200, page 634
↑ Encyclopedia of Religion in the South, p.665, Samuel S. Hill, Charles H. Lippy, Charles Reagan Wilson, 2005: "An Anabaptist, Servetus believed what has always been basic to restorationism: ... the true, apostolic church .... Restorationists in the South include three churches of the STONE-CAMPBELL TRADITION."
1 2 3 4 Carson, D. A. (10 February 2020). Themelios, Volume 44, Issue 3. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN978-1-7252-6010-8. From this nexus at Albury Park would eventually emerge the openly-restorationist Catholic Apostolic Church, in which both Drummond and London Scots preacher, Edward Irving (1792-1834), would figure prominently. Significant for the purposes of this discussion is the fact that the Catholic Apostolic Church would distinguish itself not only for its bold claim to exercise the charismata of the Apostolic age, but also for its lavish liturgies borrowed from the pre-Reformation church, both East and West.
↑ Lewis, Paul W.; Mittelstadt, Martin William (27 April 2016). What's So Liberal about the Liberal Arts?: Integrated Approaches to Christian Formation. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN978-1-4982-3145-9. The Second Great Awakening (1790-1840) spurred a renewed interest in primitive Christianity. What is known as the Restoration Movement of the nineteenth century gave birth to an array of groups: Mormons (The Latter Day Saint Movement), the Churches of Christ, Adventists, and Jehovah's Witnesses. Though these groups demonstrate a breathtaking diversity on the continuum of Christianity they share an intense restorationist impulse. Picasso and Stravinsky reflect a primitivism that came to the fore around the turn of the twentieth century that more broadly has been characterized as a "retreat from the industrialized world."
↑ Bloesch, Donald G. (2 December 2005). The Holy Spirit: Works Gifts. InterVarsity Press. p.158. ISBN978-0-8308-2755-8.
1 2 3 Spinks, Bryan D. (2 March 2017). Reformation and Modern Rituals and Theologies of Baptism: From Luther to Contemporary Practices. Routledge. ISBN978-1-351-90583-1. However, Swedenborg claimed to receive visions and revelations of heavenly things and a 'New Church', and the new church which was founded upon his writings was a Restorationist Church. The three nineteenth-century churches are all examples of Restorationist Churches, which believed they were refounding the Apostolic Church, and preparing for the Second Coming of Christ.
↑ Riswold, Caryn D. (1 October 2009). Feminism and Christianity: Questions and Answers in the Third Wave. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN978-1-62189-053-9.
↑ Gao, Ronnie Chuang-Rang; Sawatsky, Kevin (7 February 2023). "Motivations in Faith-Based Organizations". Houston Christian University. Retrieved 22 November 2023. For example, Christianity comprises six major groups: Church of the East, Oriental Orthodoxy, Eastern Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, Protestantism and Restorationism.
↑ Molloy, Michael (6 April 2017). The Christian Experience: An Introduction to Christianity. Bloomsbury Publishing. p.366. ISBN978-1-4725-8284-3. Like other Restorationists, Russell held the theory of the Great Apostasy, the belief that Christianity had fallen away from its original purity. To the simple early message of Christianity, he believed, later teachers and political leaders had added unwarranted beliefs and practices.
↑ Buck, Christopher (2009). Religious Myths and Visions of America: How Minority Faiths Redefined America's World Role. ABC-CLIO. p.88. ISBN978-0-313-35959-0.
↑ Evangelicalism in modern Britain: a history from the 1730s to the 1980s, David W. Bebbington, pub 1995, Routledge (UK), ISBN0-415-10464-5, pg 230,231; 245-249
↑ Alternative Religions: A Sociological Introduction, Stephen J. Hunt, pub 2003, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd; ISBN0-7546-3410-8, pg 82,83
↑ David Lynn Holmes, The faiths of the founding fathers, Oxford University Press US, 2006, ISBN0-19-530092-0, 9780195300925, 225 pages
↑ Erwin Fahlbusch and Geoffrey William Bromiley, translated by Geoffrey William Bromiley, The encyclopedia of Christianity, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2005, 952 pages, ISBN0-8028-2416-1, 9780802824165, entry on Restoration Movements
↑ Edith Waldvogel Blumhofer, Restoring the faith: the Assemblies of God, Pentecostalism, and American culture, University of Illinois Press, 1993, ISBN0-252-06281-7, 9780252062810, 281 pages
↑ Stephen Hunt, Alternative religions: a sociological introduction, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2003, ISBN0-7546-3410-8, 9780754634102, 268 pages
↑ Junius Benjamin Remensnyder (1893). The Lutheran Manual. Boschen & Wefer Company. p.12.
↑ Frey, H. (1918). Is One Church as Good as Another?. Vol.37. The Lutheran Witness. pp.82–83.
1 2 Ludwig, Alan (12 September 2016). "Luther's Catholic Reformation". The Lutheran Witness. When the Lutherans presented the Augsburg Confession before Emperor Charles V in 1530, they carefully showed that each article of faith and practice was true first of all to Holy Scripture, and then also to the teaching of the church fathers and the councils and even the canon law of the Church of Rome. They boldly claim, "This is about the Sum of our Doctrine, in which, as can be seen, there is nothing that varies from the Scriptures, or from the Church Catholic, or from the Church of Rome as known from its writers" (AC XXI Conclusion 1). The underlying thesis of the Augsburg Confession is that the faith as confessed by Luther and his followers is nothing new, but the true catholic faith, and that their churches represent the true catholic or universal church. In fact, it is actually the Church of Rome that has departed from the ancient faith and practice of the catholic church (see AC XXIII 13, XXVIII 72 and other places).
1 2 3 Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Great Awakenings
↑ Monroe E. Hawley, Redigging the Wells: Seeking Undenominational Christianity, Quality Publications, Abilene, Texas, 1976, ISBN0-89137-512-0 (paper), ISBN0-89137-513-9 (cloth)
1 2 McAlister, Lester G. and Tucker, William E. (1975), Journey in Faith: A History of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) - St. Louis, Chalice Press, ISBN978-0-8272-1703-4
↑ Richard Thomas Hughes and R. L. Roberts, The Churches of Christ, 2nd Edition, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001, ISBN0-313-23312-8, 9780313233128, 345 pages
↑ Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Campbell, Alexander
↑ Leroy Garrett, The Stone-Campbell Movement: The Story of the American Restoration Movement, College Press, 2002, ISBN0-89900-909-3, 9780899009094, 573 pages
↑ Sydney E. Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the American People (2004)
↑ Melton's Encyclopedia of American Religions (2009)
↑ Encyclopedia of new religions: new religious movements, sects and Christopher Hugh Partridge - 2004 "In June 1848, he returned to England and was well received in Nottingham and had further speaking engagements in Derby"
↑ The British Millennial Harbinger and Family Magazine ed. James Wallis July 1848 cover, October 1848 in full
1 2 Gallagher, Eugene V.; Willsky-Ciollo, Lydia (15 February 2021). New Religions: Emerging Faiths and Religious Cultures in the Modern World. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN979-8-216-12291-3.
↑ Nyika, Felix Chimera (2008). Restore the Primitive Church Once More: A Survey of Post Reformation Christian Restorationism. Kachere Series. p.14. In the 1990s the New Apostolic Church had almost 300 apostles with 60,000 congregations comprising 16 million members globally.
↑ Kuligin, Victor (2005). "The New Apostolic Church". Africa Journal of Evangelical Theology. 24 (1): 1–18.
↑ Whalen, William Joseph (1981). Minority Religions in America. Alba House. p.104. ISBN978-0-8189-0413-4.
↑ Decisions of the Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court) Federal Republic of Germany. Nomos. 1992. p.6. ISBN978-3-8329-2132-3.
↑ Midnight and Morning: The Millerite Movement and the Founding of the Advent Christian Church, 1831-1860 by Clyde E. Hewitt (Venture Books, 1984), as cited by "The Advent Christian Church: An Introduction", AreaChurches.com
↑ Jehovah's Witnesses – Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. chap. 31 p. 707 "A biography of Russell, published shortly after his death, explained: "He was not the founder of a new religion, and never made such claim. He revived the great truths taught by Jesus and the Apostles,"
↑ "Be Joyful Harvest Workers!". The Watchtower: 11. 15 July 2001.
↑ "Militarism and Navalism - How Long?" by Charles Taze Russell, Watch Tower, January 1, 1916, page 5, "We see wrongs perpetrated in every direction; Divine Laws entirely set aside by these so-called Christian nations--Christendom. ...God's nation--is in the world, but not of it. Its members cannot be loyal to the prince of this world [Satan], and to the Prince of Glory, both. ...Indeed, we entreat all the Lord's dear people to remember that there are but the two great Masters; and that we have enlisted on the side of our God and His Christ, and are to prove loyal to these in the midst of a crooked and perverse people, blinded by the god of this world and filled with his spirit of pride, boastfulness, animosity, hatred and strife. It should be our desire to be neutral as between these contending factions of Satan's empire. ...Let us never forget our neutrality. Let us be just toward all, kind, generous. Let us avoid as far as possible any discussion of these matters with those who would not be able to understand and appreciate our position."[italics added]Retrieved 2010-12-20Archived 2016-04-10 at the Wayback Machine
↑ "Bible Students and the Future", Watch Tower, April 1, 1915, page 101, "In all the Continental Armies our Brethren, known as Bible Students, are to be found--not willingly, but by conscription. ...Before the war we recommended to the Brethren that in the event of hostilities they should, so far as possible, if drafted, request positions in the hospital service or in the supplies department, where they could serve the Government efficiently; whereas, if they were ordered to the firing line, they would not be obliged to shoot to kill. We have reasons for believing that these suggestions are being followed... We have exhorted the brethren to strict neutrality so far as the combatants are concerned, whatever might be their natural inclination through accident of birth or association."Retrieved 2010-12-20Archived 2016-04-10 at the Wayback Machine
↑ Reasoning From The Scriptures. Watchtower. 1988. p.169.
↑ The Watchtower, April 15, 1983, pg 29, "Why is God's name, Jehovah, missing from most modern translations of the Bible? Superstition that developed among tradition-bound Jews caused them to avoid pronouncing God's personal name, Jehovah. This has contributed to worldwide ignorance regarding the divine name."
↑ Edith Waldvogel Blumhofer, Restoring the Faith: The Assemblies of God, Pentecostalism, and American Culture, University of Illinois Press, US, 1993, p. 13
↑ Allan Anderson An Introduction to Pentecostalism: Global Charismatic Christianity (Cambridge: CUP, 2004) 104
↑ Allan Anderson An Introduction to Pentecostalism: Global Charismatic Christianity (Cambridge: CUP, 2004) 104
↑ Sanders, Albert J. (1969). "An Appraisal of the Iglesia ni Cristo". In Anderson, Gerald H. (ed.). Studies in Philippine Church History. Cornell University Press.
↑ Shepherd, Harvey (30 July 1994). "Millions mark Church of Christ's 80th anniversary; Founded in the Philippines by Brother Manalo". The Gazette (Montreal). pp.H.7. ProQuest432675014. (as cited by ProQuest)
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