Churches of Christ

Last updated
Churches of Christ
Old Bethany Church of Christ, Bethany, West Virginia.jpg
Old Bethany Church of Christ Building, Bethany, West Virginia
Classification Evangelical Protestant [1] [2]
Orientation Restorationist
Polity Congregationalist
Separations
Congregations41,498 (worldwide)
11,790 (U.S.) [3]
Members2,000,000 (approx.) worldwide; [4] 1,113,362 in the United States (2020) [5]
Publications
  • Christian Courier [6]
  • WVBS (videos, educ. material) [7]
  • The Christian Chronicle (news) [8]
  • The Christian Worker (UK)
  • Apologetics Press [9] [10]
  • House to House Heart to Heart [11]

The Churches of Christ, also commonly known as the Church of Christ, is a loose association of autonomous Christian congregations located around the world. Typically, their distinguishing beliefs are that of the necessity of baptism for salvation and the prohibition of musical instruments in worship. Many such congregations identify themselves as being nondenominational. [12] The Churches of Christ arose in the United States from the Restoration Movement of 19th-century Christians who declared independence from denominations and traditional creeds. They sought "the unification of all Christians in a single body patterned after the original church described in the New Testament." [13] : 54 

Contents

Overview

Modern Churches of Christ have their historical roots in the Restoration Movement, which was a convergence of Christians across denominational lines in search of a return to an original "pre-denominational" form of Christianity. [14] [15] : 108  Participants in this movement sought to base their doctrine and practice on the Bible alone, rather than recognizing the traditional councils and denominational hierarchies that had come to define Christianity since the first century A.D. [14] [15] : 82, 104, 105  Members of the Churches of Christ believe that Jesus founded only one church, that the current divisions among Christians do not express God's will, and that the only basis for restoring Christian unity is the Bible. [14] They simply identify themselves as "Christians", without using any other forms of religious or denominational identification. [16] [17] [18] : 213  They aspire to be the New Testament church as established by Christ. [19] [20] [21] : 106 

Members of the church of Christ do not conceive of themselves as a new church started near the beginning of the 19th century. Rather, the whole movement is designed to reproduce in contemporary times the church originally established on Pentecost, A.D. 33. The strength of the appeal lies in the restoration of Christ's original church.

—  Batsell Barrett Baxter [14]

Churches of Christ generally share the following theological beliefs and practices: [14]

In keeping with their history, the Churches of Christ claim the New Testament as their sole rule of faith and practice in deciding matters of doctrine and ecclesiastical structure. [26] They view the Old Testament as divinely inspired [21] : 103  and historically accurate, but they do not consider its laws to be binding under the New Covenant in Christ (unless they are repeated in the New Testament) (Hebrews 8: 7–13). [27] : 388  [28] : 23–37  [29] : 65–67  They believe that the New Testament demonstrates how a person may become a Christian (and thus a part of the universal Church of Christ) and how a church should be collectively organized and carry out its scriptural purposes. [14]

Demographics

In 2022, the total membership of Churches of Christ is estimated to be between 1,700,000 and 2,000,000, [30] [31] with over 40,000 individual congregations worldwide. [31] In the United States, there are approximately 1,087,559 members and 11,776 congregations. [31] Overall U.S. membership was approximately 1.3 million in 1990 and 1.3 million in 2008. [32] : 5  Estimates of the proportion of the US adult population associated with the Churches of Christ vary from 0.8% to 1.5%. [32] : 5  [33] : 12, 16  Approximately 1,240 congregations, with 172,000 members, are predominantly African-American; 240 congregations with 10,000 members are Spanish-speaking. [34] : 213  The average congregation size is approximately 100 members, with larger congregations reporting over 1,000 members. [34] : 213  In 2000, the Churches of Christ were the 12th largest religious group in the U.S. based on the number of members, but the 4th largest in number of congregations. [35]

Within the U.S., membership in the Churches of Christ has declined by approximately 12% over the period from 1980 through 2007. The current retention rate of young adults graduating from high school appears to be approximately 60%. Membership is concentrated, with 70% of the U.S. membership, in thirteen states. Churches of Christ had a presence in 2,429 counties, placing them fifth behind the United Methodist Church, Catholic Church, Southern Baptist Convention and Assemblies of God – but the average number of adherents per county was approximately 677. The divorce rate was 6.9%, much lower than national averages. [35]

Name

Alexander Campbell Alexander Campbell 1788.png
Alexander Campbell

"Church of Christ" is the most common name used by this group. In keeping with their focus of not being a denomination, using Ephesians 1:22–23 as reference to the church being the body of Christ and a body cannot be divided, congregations have identified themselves primarily as community churches and secondarily as Churches of Christ. [34] : 219–220  A much earlier tradition is to identify a congregation as "the church" at a particular location, with no other description or qualifiers. [34] : 220  [36] : 136–137  A primary motivation behind the name is the desire to use a scriptural or Biblical name – to identify the church using a name that is found in the New Testament. [13] [24] : 163, 164  [36] [37] : 7–8  Adherents are also referred to as Campbellites by academics [18] and other denominations [38] because it is assumed that they are followers of the teachings of Alexander Campbell, similar to Lutherans or Calvinists. Campbell himself refuted the idea that a denomination was started by him or that he was the head of one in The Christian Baptist publication in 1826 and 1828, stating: "Some religious editors in Kentucky call those who are desirous of seeing the ancient order of things restored, 'the Restorationers', 'the Campbellites'... This may go well with some; but all who fear God and keep his commands will pity and deplore the weakness and folly of those who either think to convince or to persuade by such means" (The Christian Baptist, Vol. IV, 88–89) and: "It is a nickname of reproach invented and adopted by those whose views, feelings and desires are all sectarian – who cannot conceive of Christianity in any other light than an ISM" (The Christian Baptist, Vol. V, 270). He was also associated with the Baptist denomination until 1820. The term "Campbellite" is usually offensive to members of the churches of Christ because members claim no allegiance to anyone except Jesus Christ and teach only what is presented in biblical texts. [39]

Alexander Campbell said the "calling of Bible things by Bible names" was important in the reformation. [40] This became an early slogan of the Restorationist Movement. [41] : 688  These congregations generally avoid names that associate the church with a particular man (other than Christ) or a particular doctrine or theological point of view (e.g., Lutheran, Wesleyan, Reformed). [13] [17] They believe that Christ established only one church, and that the use of denominational names serves to foster division among Christians. [24] : 23, 24  [36] [42] [43] [44] [45] Thomas Campbell expressed an ideal of unity in his Declaration and Address : "The church of Jesus Christ on earth is essentially, intentionally, and constitutionally one." [41] : 688  This statement essentially echoes the words of Jesus Christ in John 17:21, 23.

Other terms are derived from their use in the New Testament: "church of God", "church of the Lord", "churches of Christ", "church of the first-born", "church of the living God", "the house of God", and "the people of God", [36] [46] while terms recognized as scriptural, such as Church of God, are avoided to prevent confusion or identification with other groups that use those designations. [13] [36] [47] As a practical matter, use of a common term is seen as a way to help individual Christians find congregations with a similar approach to the scriptures. [36] [48] Members understand that a scriptural name can be used in a "denominational" or "sectarian" way. [13] : 31  [36] : 83–94, 134–136  [46] Using the term "Church of Christ" exclusively has been criticized as identifying a denomination. [13] : 31  [36] : 83–94, 134–136  [46] Many congregations and individuals do not capitalize the word "church" in the phrases "church of Christ" and "churches of Christ". [49] : 382  [50] This is based on the understanding that the term "church of Christ" is used in the New Testament as a descriptive phrase, indicating that the church belongs to Christ, rather than as a proper name. [36] : 91 

Church organization

Congregational autonomy and leadership

Church government is congregational rather than denominational. Churches of Christ purposefully have no central headquarters, councils, or other organizational structure above the local church level. [18] : 214  [21] : 103  [22] : 238  [23] : 124  [51] Rather, the independent congregations are a network with each congregation participating at its own discretion in various means of service and fellowship with other congregations (see Sponsoring church (Churches of Christ)). [14] [23] : 124  [52] [53] Churches of Christ are linked by their shared commitment to Biblical restoration principles. [14] [21] : 106  Congregations which do not participate with other church congregations and which refuse to pool resources in order to support outside causes (such as mission work, orphanages, Bible colleges, etc.) are sometimes called "non-institutional."

Congregations are generally overseen by a plurality of elders who are sometimes assisted in the administration of various works by deacons. [14] [23] : 124  [24] : 47, 54–55  Elders are generally seen as responsible for the spiritual welfare of the congregation, while deacons are seen as responsible for the non-spiritual needs of the church. [54] : 531  Deacons serve under the supervision of the elders, and are often assigned to specific ministries. [54] : 531  Successful service as a deacon is often seen as preparation for the eldership. [54] : 531  Elders and deacons are appointed by the congregation based on the qualifications found in 1 Timothy 3 and Titus 1, including that the persons must be male (female elders and deaconesses are not recognized, as these are not found in Scripture). [24] : 53, 48–52  [55] [56] : 323, 335  Congregations look for elders who have a mature enough understanding of scripture to enable them to supervise the minister and to teach, as well as to perform "governance" functions. [57] : 298  In the absence of willing men who meet these qualifications, congregations are sometimes overseen by the congregation's men in general. [58]

While the early Restoration Movement had a tradition of itinerant preachers rather than "located Preachers", during the 20th century a long-term, formally trained congregational minister became the norm among Churches of Christ. [54] : 532  Ministers are understood to serve under the oversight of the elders [57] : 298  and may or may not also be qualified as an elder. While the presence of a long-term professional minister has sometimes created "significant de facto ministerial authority" and led to conflict between the minister and the elders, the eldership has remained the "ultimate locus of authority in the congregation". [54] : 531  There is, however, a small segment of Churches of Christ who oppose the "located minister" concept (see below).

Churches of Christ hold to the priesthood of all believers. [59] No special titles are used for preachers or ministers that would identify them as "clergy". [21] : 106  [28] : 112–113  Many ministers have undergraduate or graduate education in religion, or specific training in preaching through a non-college school of preaching. [34] : 215  [54] : 531  [60] : 607  [61] : 672, 673  Churches of Christ emphasize that there is no distinction between "clergy" and "laity" and that every member has a gift and a role to play in accomplishing the work of the church. [62] : 38–40 

Variations within Churches of Christ

While there is an identifiable mainstream within the Churches of Christ, there are also significant variations within the fellowship. [18] : 212  [34] : 213  [63] : 31, 32  [64] : 4  [65] : 1, 2  The approach taken to restoring the New Testament church has focused on "methods and procedures" such as church organization, the form of worship, and how the church should function. As a result, most divisions among Churches of Christ have been the result of "methodological" disputes. These are meaningful to members of this movement because of the seriousness with which they take the goal of "restoring the form and structure of the primitive church". [18] : 212 

Three-quarters of the congregations and 87% of the membership are described by The Encyclopedia of the Stone–Campbell Movement as "mainstream", sharing a general consensus on practice and theology. [34] : 213 

Congregational a cappella music from hymnals (perhaps pitched from a pitch pipe), but directed by any capable song-leader motioning the time signature, is notably characteristic of the Churches of Christ. [22] : 240  [66] : 417  [67] Few congregations clap hands or use musical instruments during "formal" weekly convocations.

The remaining congregations may be grouped into four categories which generally differ from the mainstream consensus in specific practices, rather than in theological perspectives, and tend to have smaller congregations on average. [34] : 213 

The largest of these four categories is the "non-institutional" Churches of Christ. This group is notable for opposing congregational support of institutions such as orphanages and Bible colleges. Similarly, non-institutional congregations also oppose the use of church facilities for non-church activities (such as fellowship dinners or recreation); as such, they oppose the construction of "fellowship halls", gymnasiums, and similar structures. In both cases, opposition is based on the belief that support of institutions and non-church activities are not proper functions of the local congregation. Approximately 2,055 congregations fall into this category. [34] : 213  [68]

The remaining three groups, whose congregations are generally considerably smaller than those of the mainstream or non-institutional groups, also oppose institutional support as well as "fellowship halls" and similar structures (for the same reasons as the non-institutional groups), but differ by other beliefs and practices (the groups often overlap, but in all cases hold to more conservative views than even the non-institutional groups): [34] : 213 

Beliefs

An American family Bible dating to AD 1859 Family-bible.jpg
An American family Bible dating to AD 1859

Churches of Christ seek to practice the principle of the Bible being the only source to find doctrine (known elsewhere as sola scriptura ). [23] : 123  [69] The Bible is generally regarded as inspired and inerrant. [23] : 123  Churches of Christ generally see the Bible as historically accurate and literal, unless scriptural context obviously indicates otherwise. Regarding church practices, worship, and doctrine, there is great liberty from congregation to congregation in interpreting what is biblically permissible, as congregations are not controlled by a denominational hierarchy. [70] Their approach to the Bible is driven by the "assumption that the Bible is sufficiently plain and simple to render its message obvious to any sincere believer". [18] : 212  Related to this is an assumption that the Bible provides an understandable "blueprint" or "constitution" for the church. [18] : 213 

If it's not in the Bible, then these folks aren't going to do it.

— Carmen Renee Berry, The Unauthorized Guide to Choosing a Church [22] : 240 

Historically, three hermeneutic approaches have been used among Churches of Christ. [27] : 387  [71]

The relative importance given to each of these three strategies has varied over time and between different contexts. [71] The general impression in the current Churches of Christ is that the group's hermeneutics are entirely based on the command, example, inference approach. [71] In practice, interpretation has been deductive, and heavily influenced by the group's central commitment to ecclesiology and soteriology. [71] Inductive reasoning has been used as well, as when all of the conversion accounts from the book of Acts are collated and analyzed to determine the steps necessary for salvation. [71] One student of the movement summarized the traditional approach this way: "In most of their theologizing, however, my impression is that spokespersons in the Churches of Christ reason from Scripture in a deductive manner, arguing from one premise or hypothesis to another so as to arrive at a conclusion. In this regard the approach is much like that of science which, in practice moves deductively from one hypothesis to another, rather than in a Baconian inductive manner." [71] In recent years, changes in the degree of emphasis placed on ecclesiology and soteriology has spurred a reexamination of the traditional hermeneutics among some associated with the Churches of Christ. [71]

A debate arose during the 1980s over the use of the command, example, necessary inference model for identifying the "essentials" of the New Testament faith. Some argued that it fostered legalism, and advocated instead a hermeneutic based on the character of God, Christ and the Holy Spirit. Traditionalists urged the rejection of this "new hermeneutic". [72] Use of this tripartite formula has declined as congregations have shifted to an increased "focus on 'spiritual' issues like discipleship, servanthood, family and praise". [27] : 388  Relatively greater emphasis has been given to Old Testament studies in congregational Bible classes and at affiliated colleges in recent decades. While it is still not seen as authoritative for Christian worship, church organization, or regulating the Christian's life, some have argued that it is theologically authoritative. [27] : 388 

Many scholars associated with the Churches of Christ embrace the methods of modern Biblical criticism but not the associated anti-supernaturalistic views. More generally, the classical grammatico-historical method is prevalent, which provides a basis for some openness to alternative approaches to understanding the scriptures. [27] : 389 

Doctrine of salvation (soteriology)

Churches of Christ are strongly anti-Lutheran and anti-Calvinist in their understanding of salvation and generally present conversion as "obedience to the proclaimed facts of the gospel rather than as the result of an emotional, Spirit-initiated conversion". [34] : 215  Churches of Christ hold the view that humans of accountable age are lost because they have committed sins. [23] : 124  These lost souls can be redeemed because Jesus Christ, the Son of God, offered himself as the atoning sacrifice. [23] : 124  Children too young to understand right from wrong and make a conscious choice between the two are believed to be innocent of sin. [21] : 107  [23] : 124  There is no set age for this to occur; it is only when the child learns the difference between right and wrong that they are accountable (James 4:17). Congregations differ in their interpretation of the age of accountability. [21] : 107 

Churches of Christ generally teach that the process of salvation involves the following steps: [14]

  1. One must be properly taught, and hear (Romans 10:14–17);
  2. One must believe or have faith (Hebrews 11:6, Mark 16:16);
  3. One must repent, which means turning from one's former lifestyle and choosing God's ways (Acts 17:30);
  4. One must confess belief that Jesus is the son of God (Acts 8:36–37);
  5. One must be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ (Acts 2:38); and
  6. One must live faithfully as a Christian (1 Peter 2:9).

Beginning in the 1960s, many preachers began placing more emphasis on the role of grace in salvation, instead of focusing exclusively on implementing all of the New Testament commands and examples. [64] : 152, 153  This was not an entirely new approach, as others had actively "affirmed a theology of free and unmerited grace", but it did represent a change of emphasis with grace becoming "a theme that would increasingly define this tradition". [64] : 153 

Baptism

Baptism by immersion Baptism by immersion.jpg
Baptism by immersion

Baptism has been recognized as the important initiatory rite throughout the history of the Christian Church, [73] : 11  but Christian groups differ over the manner and time in which baptism is administered, [73] : 11  the meaning and significance of baptism, [73] : 11  its role in salvation, [73] : 12  and who is a candidate for baptism. [73] : 12 

Baptism in Churches of Christ is performed only by bodily immersion, [21] : 107  [23] : 124  based on the New Testament's use of the Koine Greek verb βαπτίζω (baptizō) which is understood to mean to dip, immerse, submerge or plunge. [14] [24] : 313–314  [28] : 45–46  [73] : 139  [74] : 22  Immersion is seen as more closely conforming to the death, burial, and resurrection of Jesus than other modes of baptism. [14] [24] : 314–316  [73] : 140  Churches of Christ argue that historically immersion was the mode used in the first century, and that pouring and sprinkling emerged later. [73] : 140  Over time these secondary modes came to replace immersion, in the State Churches of Europe. [73] : 140  Only those mentally capable of belief and repentance are baptized (e.g., infant baptism is not practiced). [14] [23] : 124  [24] : 318–319  [56] : 195 

Churches of Christ have historically had the most conservative position on baptism among the various branches of the Restoration Movement, understanding that repentance and baptism by immersion are necessary parts of conversion. [75] : 61  The most significant disagreements concerned the extent to which a correct understanding of the role of baptism is necessary for its validity. [75] : 61  David Lipscomb argued that if a believer was baptized out of a desire to obey God, the baptism was valid, even if the individual did not fully understand the role baptism plays in salvation. [75] : 61  Austin McGary argued that to be valid, the convert must also understand that baptism is for the forgiveness of sins. [75] : 62  McGary's view became the prevailing one in the early 20th century, but the approach advocated by Lipscomb never totally disappeared. [75] : 62  More recently, the rise of the International Churches of Christ, who "reimmersed some who came into their fellowship, even those previously immersed 'for remission of sins' in a Church of Christ," has caused some to reexamine the question of rebaptism. [75] : 66 

Churches of Christ consistently teach that in baptism a believer surrenders his life in faith and obedience to God, and that God "by the merits of Christ's blood, cleanses one from sin and truly changes the state of the person from an alien to a citizen of God's kingdom. Baptism is not a human work; it is the place where God does the work that only God can do." [75] : 66  The term "alien" is used in reference to sinners as in Eph 2:12. Members consider baptism a passive act of faith rather than a meritorious work; it "is a confession that a person has nothing to offer God". [76] : 112  While Churches of Christ do not describe baptism as a "sacrament", their view of it can legitimately be described as "sacramental". [74] : 186  [75] : 66  They see the power of baptism coming from God, who uses baptism as a vehicle, rather than from the water or the act itself, [74] : 186  and understand baptism to be an integral part of the conversion process, rather than as only a symbol of conversion. [74] : 184  A recent trend is to emphasize the transformational aspect of baptism: instead of describing it as nothing more than a legal requirement or sign of something that happened in the past, it is seen as "the event that places the believer 'into Christ' where God does the ongoing work of transformation". [75] : 66  There is a minority that downplays the importance of baptism in order to avoid sectarianism, but the broader trend is to "reexamine the richness of the Biblical teaching of baptism and to reinforce its central and essential place in Christianity". [75] : 66 

Because of the belief that baptism is a necessary part of salvation, some Baptists hold that the Churches of Christ endorse the doctrine of baptismal regeneration. [77] However members of the Churches of Christ reject this, arguing that since faith and repentance are necessary, and that the cleansing of sins is by the blood of Christ through the grace of God, baptism is not an inherently redeeming ritual. [73] : 133  [77] [78] : 630, 631  One author describes the relationship between faith and baptism this way, "Faith is the reason why a person is a child of God; baptism is the time at which one is incorporated into Christ and so becomes a child of God" (italics are in the source). [56] : 170  Baptism is understood as a confessional expression of faith and repentance, [56] : 179–182  rather than a "work" that earns salvation. [56] : 170 

A cappella singing

Psalms, Hymns and Spiritual Songs (1843, 13th stereotype ed.) Psalms, Hymns and Spiritual Songs 1843, 13th stereotype ed..JPG
Psalms, Hymns and Spiritual Songs (1843, 13th stereotype ed.)

The Churches of Christ generally combine the lack of any historical evidence that the early church used musical instruments in its worship assemblies [13] : 47  [24] : 237–238  [66] : 415  with the New Testament's lack of scriptures authorizing the use of instruments in worship assemblies [14] [24] : 244–246  to conclude that instruments should not be used today in corporate worship. Thus, they have typically practiced a cappella music in their worship assemblies. [14] [22] : 240  [23] : 124 

The tradition of a cappella congregational singing in the Churches of Christ is deep rooted and the rich history of the practice stimulated the creation of many hymns in the early 20th century. Notable Churches of Christ hymn writers have included Albert Brumley ("I'll Fly Away") and Tillit S. Teddlie ("Worthy Art Thou"). More traditional Church of Christ hymns commonly are in the style of gospel hymnody. The hymnal Great Songs of the Church , which was first published in 1921 and has had many subsequent editions, is widely used in Churches of Christ. [79]

Scriptures cited to support the practice of a cappella worship include:

The use of musical instruments in worship was a divisive topic within the Stone–Campbell Movement from its earliest years, when some adherents opposed the practice on traditional grounds, while others may have relied on a cappella simply because they lacked access to musical instruments. Alexander Campbell opposed the use of instruments in worship. As early as 1855, some Restoration Movement churches were using organs or pianos, ultimately leading the Churches of Christ to separate from the groups that condoned instrumental music. [79] However, since the early 2000's, an increasing number of congregations within the Churches of Christ have begun using musical instruments in their worship assemblies. Some of these latter describe themselves as a "Church of Christ (Instrumental)". [22] : 240  [66] : 417  [80] [81] [82] [65] : 667 

Other theological tendencies

Churches of Christ are generally amillennial. Millennial views.svg
Churches of Christ are generally amillennial.

Many leaders argue that the Churches of Christ only follow the Bible and have no "theology". [83] : 737  Christian theology as classically understood – the systematic development of the classical doctrinal topics – is relatively recent and rare among this movement. [83] : 737  Because Churches of Christ reject all formalized creeds on the basis that they add to or detract from Scripture, they generally reject most conceptual doctrinal positions out of hand. [84] Churches of Christ do tend to elaborate certain "driving motifs". [83] : 737  These are scripture (hermeneutics), the church (ecclesiology) and the "plan of salvation" (soteriology). [83] : 737  The importance of theology, understood as teaching or "doctrine", has been defended on the basis that an understanding of doctrine is necessary to respond intelligently to questions from others, to promote spiritual health, and to draw the believer closer to God. [76] : 10–11 

Churches of Christ avoid the term "theology", preferring instead the term "doctrine": theology is what humans say about the Bible; doctrine is simply what the Bible says.

— Encyclopedia of Religion in the South [18] : 213 

Eschatology

Regarding eschatology (a branch of theology concerned with the final events in the history of the world or of humankind), Churches of Christ are generally amillennial, their originally prevalent postmillennialism (evident in Alexander Campbell's Millennial Harbinger ) having dissipated around the era of the First World War. Before then, many leaders were "moderate historical premillennialists" who did not advocate specific historical interpretations. Churches of Christ have moved away from premillennialism as dispensational millennialism has come more to fore in Protestant evangelical circles. [34] : 219  [85] Amillennialism and postmillennialism are the prevailing views today. [23] : 125 

Premillennialism was a focus of controversy during the first half of the 20th century. [34] : 219  One of the most influential advocates for that point of view was Robert Henry Boll, [86] : 96–97  [87] : 306  whose eschatological views came to be most singularly opposed by Foy E. Wallace Jr. [88] By the end of the 20th century, however, the divisions caused by the debate over premillennialism were diminishing, and in the 2000 edition of the directory Churches of Christ in the United States, published by Mac Lynn, congregations holding premillennial views were no longer listed separately. [86] : 97  [89]

Work of the Holy Spirit

During the late 19th century, the prevailing view in the Restoration Movement was that the Holy Spirit currently acts only through the influence of inspired scripture. [90] This rationalist view was associated with Alexander Campbell, who was "greatly affected by what he viewed as the excesses of the emotional camp meetings and revivals of his day". [90] He believed that the Spirit draws people towards salvation but understood the Spirit to do this "in the same way any person moves another—by persuasion with words and ideas". This view came to prevail over that of Barton W. Stone, who believed the Spirit had a more direct role in the life of the Christian. [90] Since the early 20th century, many, but not all, among the Churches of Christ have moved away from this "word-only" theory of the operation of the Holy Spirit. [91] As one scholar of the movement puts it, "[f]or better or worse, those who champion the so-called word-only theory no longer have a hold on the minds of the constituency of Churches of Christ. Though relatively few have adopted outright charismatic and third wave views and remained in the body, apparently the spiritual waves have begun to erode that rational rock." [90] The Churches of Christ hold a cessationist perspective on the gifts of the Spirit.[ citation needed ] [92]

The Trinity

Alexander Campbell and Barton W. Stone are recognized as two of the major Reformers of the so-called "Stone–Campbell Movement." Barton Stone was staunchly non-trinitarian as he elucidates in his, "An Address to the Christian Churches in Kentucky, Tennessee, & Ohio On Several Important Doctrines of Religion [93] ." Alexander Campbell, "rejected the term 'Trinity,' but Campbell did not reject the theological idea of the tri-unity of the Christian God." [94] The fact that these two movements merged into one shows that this was not a major point of contention, even if it was a point of disagreement. [95]

Church history

The fundamental idea of "restoration" or "Christian Primitivism" is that problems or deficiencies in the church can be corrected by using the primitive church as a "normative model." [96] : 635  The call for restoration is often justified on the basis of a "falling away" that corrupted the original purity of the church. [37] [97] [98] This falling away is identified with the development of Catholicism and denominationalism. [24] : 56–66, 103–138  [37] : 54–73  [97] [98] New Testament verses that discuss future apostasy (2 Thessalonians 2:3) and heresy (e.g., Acts 20:29, 1 Timothy 4:1, 2 Tim 4:1–4:4) are understood to predict this falling away. [97] The logic of "restoration" could imply that the "true" church completely disappeared and thus lead towards exclusivism. [98] Another view of restoration is that the "true Church ... has always existed by grace and not by human engineering" (italics in the original). [99] : 640  In this view the goal is to "help Christians realize the ideal of the church in the New Testament – to restore the church as conceived in the mind of Christ" (italics in the original). [99] : 640  Early Restoration Movement leaders did not believe that the church had ceased to exist, but instead sought to reform and reunite the church. [98] [99] : 638  [100] [101] A number of congregations' web sites explicitly state that the true church never disappeared. [102] The belief in a general falling away is not seen as inconsistent with the idea that a faithful remnant of the church never entirely disappeared. [24] : 153  [37] : 5  [103] : 41  Some have attempted to trace this remnant through the intervening centuries between the New Testament and the beginning of the Restoration Movement in the early 1800s. [104] [105]

One effect of the emphasis placed on the New Testament church is a "sense of historylessness" that sees the intervening history between the 1st century and the modern church as "irrelevant or even abhorrent." [15] : 152  Authors within the brotherhood have recently argued that a greater attention to history can help guide the church through modern-day challenges. [15] : 151–157  [106] : 60–64 

Contemporary social and political views

The churches of Christ maintain a significant proportion of political diversity. [107] According to the Pew Research Center in 2016, 50% of adherents of the churches of Christ identify as Republican or lean Republican, 39% identify as Democratic or lean Democratic and 11% have no preference. [108] Despite this, the Christian Chronicle says that the vast majority of adherents maintain a conservative view on modern social issues. This is evident when the Research Center questioned adherents' political ideology. In the survey, 51% identified as "conservative", 29% identified as "moderate" and just 12% identified as "liberal", with 8% not knowing. [109] In contemporary society, the vast majority of adherents of the churches of Christ view homosexuality as a sin. [110] They cite Leviticus 18:22 and Romans 1:26–27 for their position. Most don't view same-sex attraction as a sin; however, they condemn "acting on same-sex desires". [111]

History

Interior of the original meeting house at Cane Ridge, Kentucky Cane Ridge Meeting House Interior.JPG
Interior of the original meeting house at Cane Ridge, Kentucky

Early Restoration Movement history

The Restoration Movement originated with the convergence of several independent efforts to go back to apostolic Christianity. [15] : 101  [36] : 27  Two were of particular importance to the development of the movement. [15] : 101–106  [36] : 27  The first, led by Barton W. Stone, began at Cane Ridge, Kentucky and called themselves simply "Christians". The second began in western Pennsylvania and was led by Thomas Campbell and his son, Alexander Campbell; they used the name "Disciples of Christ". Both groups sought to restore the whole Christian church on the pattern set forth in the New Testament, and both believed that creeds kept Christianity divided. [15] : 101–106  [36] : 27–32 

Thomas Campbell CampbellThomas.png
Thomas Campbell

The Campbell movement was characterized by a "systematic and rational reconstruction" of the early church, in contrast to the Stone movement which was characterized by radical freedom and lack of dogma. [15] : 106–108  Despite their differences, the two movements agreed on several critical issues. [15] : 108  Both saw restoring the early church as a route to Christian freedom, and both believed that unity among Christians could be achieved by using apostolic Christianity as a model. [15] : 108  The commitment of both movements to restoring the early church and to uniting Christians was enough to motivate a union between many in the two movements. [64] : 8, 9  While emphasizing that the Bible is the only source to seek doctrine, an acceptance of Christians with diverse opinions was the norm in the quest for truth. "In essentials, unity; in non-essentials, liberty; in all things, love" was an oft-quoted slogan of the period. [112] The Stone and Campbell movements merged in 1832. [36] : 28  [113] : 212  [114] : xxi  [115] : xxxvii 

The Restoration Movement began during, and was greatly influenced by, the Second Great Awakening. [116] : 368  While the Campbells resisted what they saw as the spiritual manipulation of the camp meetings, the Southern phase of the Awakening "was an important matrix of Barton Stone's reform movement" and shaped the evangelistic techniques used by both Stone and the Campbells. [116] : 368 

Christian Churches and Churches of Christ separation

In 1906, the U.S. Religious Census listed the Christian Churches and the Churches of Christ as separate and distinct groups for the first time. [117] : 251  This was the recognition of a division that had been growing for years under the influence of conservatives such as Daniel Sommer, with reports of the division having been published as early as 1883. [117] : 252  The most visible distinction between the two groups was the rejection of musical instruments in the Churches of Christ. The controversy over musical instruments began in 1860 with the introduction of organs in some churches. More basic were differences in the underlying approach to Biblical interpretation. For the Churches of Christ, any practices not present in accounts of New Testament worship were not permissible in the church, and they could find no New Testament documentation of the use of instrumental music in worship. For the Christian Churches, any practices not expressly forbidden could be considered. [117] : 242–247  Another specific source of controversy was the role of missionary societies, the first of which was the American Christian Missionary Society, formed in October 1849. [118] [119] While there was no disagreement over the need for evangelism, many believed that missionary societies were not authorized by scripture and would compromise the autonomy of local congregations. [118] This disagreement became another important factor leading to the separation of the Churches of Christ from the Christian Church. [118] Cultural factors arising from the American Civil War also contributed to the division. [120]

David Lipscomb DavidLipscomb.jpg
David Lipscomb

Nothing in life has given me more pain in heart than the separation from those I have heretofore worked with and loved

—  David Lipscomb, 1899 [121]

In 1968, at the International Convention of Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ), those Christian Churches that favored a denominational structure, wished to be more ecumenical, and also accepted more of the modern liberal theology of various denominations, adopted a new "provisional design" for their work together, becoming the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). [49] : 495  Those congregations that chose not to be associated with the new denominational organization continued as undenominational Christian churches and churches of Christ, completing a separation that had begun decades before. [49] : 407–409  The instrumental Christian Churches and Churches of Christ in some cases have both organizational and hermeneutical differences with the Churches of Christ. [18] : 186  For example, they have a loosely organized convention and view scriptural silence on an issue more permissively, [18] : 186  but they are more closely related to the Churches of Christ in their theology and ecclesiology than they are with the Disciples of Christ denomination. [18] : 186  Some see divisions in the movement as the result of the tension between the goals of restoration and ecumenism, with the a cappella Churches of Christ and Christian churches and churches of Christ resolving the tension by stressing Bible authority, while the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) resolved the tension by stressing ecumenism. [18] : 210  [49] : 383 

Race relations

Barton W. Stone Stonebw01.jpg
Barton W. Stone

Early Restoration Movement leaders varied in their views of slavery, reflecting the range of positions common in the Pre-Civil-War U.S. [122] : 619  Barton W. Stone was a strong opponent of slavery, arguing that there was no Biblical justification for the form of slavery then being practiced in the United States and calling for immediate emancipation. [122] : 619  Alexander Campbell represented a more "Jeffersonian" opposition to slavery, writing of it as more of a political problem than as a religious or moral one. [122] : 619  Having seen Methodists and Baptists divide over the issue of slavery, Campbell argued that scripture regulated slavery rather than prohibited it, and that abolition should not be allowed to become an issue over which Christians would break fellowship with each other. [122] : 619  Like the country as a whole, the assumption of white racial superiority was almost universal among those on all sides of the issue, and it was common for congregations to have separate seating for black members. [122] : 619 

After the Civil War, black Christians who had been worshiping in mixed-race Restoration Movement congregations formed their own congregations. [122] : 619  White members of Restoration Movement congregations shared many of the racial prejudices of the times. [122] : 620  Among the Churches of Christ, Marshall Keeble became a prominent African-American evangelist. He estimated that by January 1919 he had "traveled 23,052 miles, preached 1,161 sermons, and baptized 457 converts". [122] : 620 

To object to any child of God participating in the service on account of his race, social or civil state, his color or race, is to object to Jesus Christ and to cast him from our association. It is a fearful thing to do. I have never attended a church that negroes did not attend.

—  David Lipscomb, 1907 [123]

During the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s the Churches of Christ struggled with changing racial attitudes. [122] : 621  Some leaders, such as Foy E. Wallace Jr., and George S. Benson of Harding University railed against racial integration, saying that racial segregation was the Divine Order. [124] [125] Schools and colleges associated with the movement were at the center of the debate. [122] : 621  N.B. Hardeman, the president of Freed-Hardeman, was adamant that the black and white races should not mingle, and refused to shake hands with black Christians. [125] Abilene Christian College first admitted black undergraduate students in 1962 (graduate students had been admitted in 1961). [122] : 621  Desegregation of other campuses followed. [122] : 621  [126]

Efforts to address racism continued through the following decades. [122] : 622  A national meeting of prominent leaders from the Churches of Christ was held in June 1968. [122] : 622  Thirty-two participants signed a set of proposals intended to address discrimination in local congregations, church affiliated activities and the lives of individual Christians. [122] : 622  An important symbolic step was taken in 1999 when the president of Abilene Christian University "confessed the sin of racism in the school's past segregationist policies" and asked black Christians for forgiveness during a lectureship at Southwestern Christian College, a historically black school affiliated with the Churches of Christ. [122] : 622  [127] : 695 

Institutional controversy

After World War II, Churches of Christ began sending ministers and humanitarian relief to war-torn Europe and Asia.

Though there was agreement that separate para-church "missionary societies" could not be established (on the belief that such work could only be performed through local congregations), a doctrinal conflict ensued about how this work was to be done. Eventually, the funding and control of outreach programs in the United States such as homes for orphans, nursing homes, mission work, setting up new congregations, Bible colleges or seminaries, and large-scale radio and television programs became part of the controversy.

Congregations which supported and participated in pooling funds for these institutional activities are said to be "sponsoring church" congregations. Congregations which have traditionally opposed these organized sponsorship activities are said to be "non-institutional" congregations. The institutional controversy resulted in the largest division among Churches of Christ in the 20th century. [128]

Separation of the International Churches of Christ

The International Churches of Christ had their roots in a "discipling" movement that arose among the mainline Churches of Christ during the 1970s. [129] : 418  This discipling movement developed in the campus ministry of Chuck Lucas. [129] : 418 

In 1967, Chuck Lucas was minister of the 14th Street Church of Christ in Gainesville, Florida (later renamed the Crossroads Church of Christ). That year he started a new project known as Campus Advance (based on principles borrowed from the Campus Crusade and the Shepherding Movement). Centered on the University of Florida, the program called for a strong evangelical outreach and an intimate religious atmosphere in the form of soul talks and prayer partners. Soul talks were held in student residences and involved prayer and sharing overseen by a leader who delegated authority over group members. Prayer partners referred to the practice of pairing a new Christian with an older guide for personal assistance and direction. Both procedures led to "in-depth involvement of each member in one another's lives", and critics accused Lucas of fostering cultism. [130]

The Crossroads Movement later spread into some other Churches of Christ. One of Lucas' converts, Kip McKean, moved to the Boston area in 1979 and began working with "would-be disciples" in the Lexington Church of Christ. [129] : 418  He asked them to "redefine their commitment to Christ," and introduced the use of discipling partners. The congregation grew rapidly, and was renamed the Boston Church of Christ. [129] : 418  In the early 1980s, the focus of the movement moved to Boston, Massachusetts where Kip McKean and the Boston Church of Christ became prominently associated with the trend. [129] : 418  [130] : 133, 134  With the national leadership located in Boston, during the 1980s it commonly became known as the "Boston movement". [129] : 418  [130] : 133, 134  A formal break was made from the mainline Churches of Christ in 1993 with the organization of the International Churches of Christ. [129] : 418  This new designation formalized a division that was already in existence between those involved with the Crossroads/Boston Movement and "mainline" Churches of Christ. [49] : 442  [129] : 418, 419  Other names that have been used for this movement include the "Crossroads movement," "Multiplying Ministries," the "Discipling Movement" and the "Boston Church of Christ". [130] : 133 

Kip McKean resigned as the "World Mission Evangelist" in November 2002. [129] : 419  Some ICoC leaders began "tentative efforts" at reconciliation with the Churches of Christ during the Abilene Christian University Lectureship in February 2004. [129] : 419 

Restoration Movement timeline

Churches of Christ outside the United States

Most members of the Churches of Christ live outside the United States. Although there is no reliable counting system, it is anecdotally believed there may be more than 1,000,000 members of the Churches of Christ in Africa, approximately 1,000,000 in India, and 50,000 in Central and South America. Total worldwide membership is over 3,000,000, with approximately 1,000,000 in the U.S. [34] : 212 

Africa

Although there is no reliable counting system, it is anecdotally believed to be 1,000,000 or more members of the Churches of Christ in Africa. [34] : 212  The total number of congregations is approximately 14,000. [131] : 7  The most significant concentrations are in Nigeria, Malawi, Ghana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Ethiopia, South Africa, South Sudan and Kenya. [131] : 7 

Asia

Estimates are that there are 2,000 or more Restoration Movement congregations in India, [132] : 37, 38  with a membership of approximately 1,000,000. [34] : 212  More than 100 congregations exist in the Philippines. [132] : 38  Growth in other Asian countries has been smaller but is still significant. [132] : 38 

Australia

Historically, Restoration Movement groups from Great Britain were more influential than those from the United States in the early development of the movement in Australia. Churches of Christ grew up independently in several locations. [133] : 47  While early Churches of Christ in Australia saw creeds as divisive, towards the end of the 19th century they began viewing "summary statements of belief" as useful in tutoring second generation members and converts from other religious groups. [133] : 50  The period from 1875 through 1910 also saw debates over the use of musical instruments in worship, Christian Endeavor Societies and Sunday Schools. Ultimately, all three found general acceptance in the movement. [133] : 51  Currently, the Restoration Movement is not as divided in Australia as it is in the United States. [133] : 53  There have been strong ties with the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), but many conservative ministers and congregations associate with the Christian churches and churches of Christ instead. [133] : 53  Others have sought support from non-instrumental Churches of Christ, particularly those who felt that "conference" congregations had "departed from the restoration ideal". [133] : 53 

Canada

A relatively small proportion of total membership comes from Canada. A growing portion of the Canadian demographic is made up of immigrant members of the church. This is partly the result of Canadian demographics as a whole, and partly due to decreased interest amongst late generation Canadians. [134] The largest concentration of active congregations in Canada are in Southern Ontario, with notable congregations gathering in Beamsville, Bramalea, Niagara Falls, Vineland, Toronto (several), and Waterloo. However, many congregations of various sizes (typically under 300 members) meet all across Canada. [135]

Great Britain

In the early 1800s, Scottish Baptists were influenced by the writings of Alexander Campbell in the Christian Baptist and Millennial Harbinger . [136] A group in Nottingham withdrew from the Scotch Baptist church in 1836 to form a Church of Christ. [136] : 369  James Wallis, a member of that group, founded a magazine named The British Millennial Harbinger in 1837. [136] : 369  In 1842 the first Cooperative Meeting of Churches of Christ in Great Britain was held in Edinburgh. [136] : 369  Approximately 50 congregations were involved, representing a membership of 1,600. [136] : 369  The name "Churches of Christ" was formally adopted at an annual meeting in 1870. [136] : 369  Alexander Campbell influenced the British Restoration Movement indirectly through his writings; he visited Britain for several months in 1847, and "presided at the Second Cooperative Meeting of the British Churches at Chester". [136] : 369  At that time the movement had grown to encompass 80 congregations with a total membership of 2,300. [136] : 369  Annual meetings were held after 1847. [136] : 369 

The use of instrumental music in worship was not a source of division among the Churches of Christ in Great Britain before World War I. More significant was the issue of pacifism; a national conference was established in 1916 for congregations that opposed the war. [136] : 371  A conference for "Old Paths" congregations was first held in 1924. [136] : 371  The issues involved included concern that the Christian Association was compromising traditional principles in seeking ecumenical ties with other organizations and a sense that it had abandoned Scripture as "an all-sufficient rule of faith and practice". [136] : 371  Two "Old Paths" congregations withdrew from the Association in 1931; an additional two withdrew in 1934, and nineteen more withdrew between 1943 and 1947. [136] : 371 

Membership declined rapidly during and after the First World War. [136] : 372  [137] : 312  The Association of Churches of Christ in Britain disbanded in 1980. [136] : 372  [137] : 312  Most Association congregations (approximately 40) united with the United Reformed Church in 1981. [136] : 372  [137] : 312  In the same year, twenty-four other congregations formed a Fellowship of Churches of Christ. [136] : 372  The Fellowship developed ties with the Christian churches and churches of Christ during the 1980s. [136] : 372  [137] : 312 

The Fellowship of Churches of Christ and some Australian and New Zealand Churches advocate a "missional" emphasis with an ideal of "Five Fold Leadership". Many people in more traditional Churches of Christ see these groups as having more in common with Pentecostal churches. The main publishing organs of traditional Churches of Christ in Britain are The Christian Worker magazine and the Scripture Standard magazine. A history of the Association of Churches of Christ, Let Sects and Parties Fall, was written by David M Thompson. [138] Further information can be found in the Historical Survey of Churches of Christ in the British Isles, edited by Joe Nisbet. [139]

South America

In Brazil there are above 600 congregations and 100,000 members from the Restoration Movement. Most of them were established by Lloyd David Sanders. [140]

See also

Categories

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Restoration Movement</span> Christian movement seeking church reformation and unification

The Restoration Movement is a Christian movement that began on the United States frontier during the Second Great Awakening (1790–1840) of the early 19th century. The pioneers of this movement were seeking to reform the church from within and sought "the unification of all Christians in a single body patterned after the church of the New Testament."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alexander Campbell (minister)</span> Scots-Irish American ordained minister (1788–1866)

Alexander Campbell was an Ulster Scots immigrant who became an ordained minister in the United States and joined his father Thomas Campbell as a leader of a reform effort that is historically known as the Restoration Movement, and by some as the "Stone-Campbell Movement." It resulted in the development of non-denominational Christian churches, which stressed reliance on scripture and few essentials.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">David Lipscomb</span> Leader, American Restoration Movement (1831–1917)

David Lipscomb was a minister, editor, and educator in the American Restoration Movement and one of the leaders of that movement, which, by 1906, had formalized a division into the Church of Christ and the Christian Church. James A. Harding and David Lipscomb founded the Nashville Bible School, now known as Lipscomb University in honor of the latter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Barton W. Stone</span> American evangelist

Barton Warren Stone was an American evangelist during the early 19th-century Second Great Awakening in the United States. First ordained a Presbyterian minister, he and four other ministers of the Washington Presbytery resigned after arguments about doctrine and enforcement of policy by the Kentucky Synod. This was in 1803, after Stone had helped lead the mammoth Cane Ridge Revival, a several-day communion season attended by nearly 20,000 persons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thomas Campbell (minister)</span> Irish Presbyterian minister

Thomas Campbell was a Presbyterian minister who became prominent during the Second Great Awakening of the United States. Born in County Down, he began a religious reform movement on the American frontier. He was joined in the work by his son, Alexander. Their movement, known as the "Disciples of Christ", merged in 1832 with the similar movement led by Barton W. Stone to form what is now described as the American Restoration Movement.

<i>Gospel Advocate</i>

The Gospel Advocate is a religious magazine published monthly in Nashville, Tennessee for members of the Churches of Christ. The Advocate enjoyed uninterrupted publication since 1866 until the COVID-19 pandemic.

The Firm Foundation was a religious periodical published monthly in Houston, Texas, for members of the Churches of Christ. It was established in 1884 by Austin McGary. The Firm Foundation was, for the next hundred years, one of the two most influential publications among the Churches of Christ along with the Gospel Advocate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Walter Scott (clergyman)</span>

Walter Scott was one of the four key early leaders in the Restoration Movement, along with Barton W. Stone, Thomas Campbell and Thomas' son Alexander Campbell. He was a successful evangelist and helped to stabilize the Campbell movement as it was separating from the Baptists.

Word and Work is a religious journal associated with those Churches of Christ that hold to a premillennial eschatology. It was founded in 1908 by Dr. David Lipscomb Watson.

The Christians (Stone Movement) were a group arising during the Second Great Awakening of the early 19th century. The most prominent leader was Barton W. Stone. The group was committed to restoring primitive Christianity. It merged with the Disciples of Christ (Campbell Movement) in 1832 to form what is now described as the American Restoration Movement (also known as the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement.)

The Disciples of Christ (Campbell Movement) were a group arising during the Second Great Awakening of the early 19th century. The most prominent leaders were Thomas and Alexander Campbell. The group was committed to restoring primitive Christianity. It merged with the Christians (Stone Movement) in 1832 to form what is now described as the American Restoration Movement (also known as the Stone–Campbell Restoration Movement).

The Millennial Harbinger was a religious magazine established by the early Restoration Movement leader Alexander Campbell in 1830. Campbell viewed the magazine as an important vehicle for promoting the religious reforms that he believed would help usher in the millennium.

<i>Christian Baptist</i>

The Christian Baptist, established in 1823 by Alexander Campbell, was the first magazine associated with the early Restoration Movement. The prospectus for the Christian Baptist described its purpose as "[to] espouse the cause of no religious sect, excepting that ancient sect called 'Christians first at Antioch.' Its sole object shall be the eviction of truth, and the exposure of error in doctrine and practice." The style has been described as "lively" and "sarcastic". Campbell discontinued the Christian Baptist in 1830 and began publishing a new journal named the Millennial Harbinger which had a "milder tone".

The Redstone Baptist Association was an association of Baptist churches in Western Pennsylvania. The early Restoration Movement leader Alexander Campbell and the congregation he led, the Brush Run Church, were members of the Association for several years during the early 19th century.

The Living Oracles is a translation of the New Testament compiled and edited by the early Restoration Movement leader Alexander Campbell. Published in 1826, it was based on an 1818 combined edition of translations by George Campbell, James MacKnight and Philip Doddridge, and included edits and extensive notes by Campbell.

The Christian Messenger was a religious magazine established by the early Restoration Movement leader Barton W. Stone in 1826. The paper was a key means of communication for the "Christians" led by Stone and a primary source of unity in the movement, but consistently struggled for survival. It also played a key role in promoting the merger of the "Christians" with the "Disciples" led by Thomas and Alexander Campbell.

The American Christian Missionary Society (ACMS) was the first missionary organization associated with the Restoration Movement.

The Mahoning Baptist Association was an association of Baptist churches that was established in 1820 in Ohio's Mahoning Valley. Two prominent early Restoration Movement leaders, Alexander Campbell and Walter Scott, were closely affiliated with the Mahoning Association. The Association was dissolved in 1830.

The Christian Woman's Board of Missions (CWBM) was a missionary organization associated with the Restoration Movement. Established in 1874, it was the first such group managed entirely by women. It hired both men and women, and supported both domestic and foreign missions.

The Churches of Christ in Europe are Christian groups of autonomous congregations using the name "church of Christ" which may or may not have a historical association with the Restoration Movement. These groups are characterized by an emphasis on basing doctrine and practice on the Bible alone in order to restore the New Testament church they believe to have been established by Jesus.

References

Citations

  1. ↑ "Churches of Christ (1906 - Present) - Religious Group". www.thearda.com. Retrieved May 16, 2023.
  2. ↑ "Though some in the Movement have been reluctant to label themselves Protestants, the Stone-Campbell Movement is in the direct lineage of the Protestant Reformation. Especially shaped by Reformed theology through its Presbyterian roots, the Movement also shares historical and theological traits with Anglican and Anabaptist forebears." Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, "Protestant Reformation", in The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8.
  3. ↑ "Church numbers listed by country". ChurchZip. Archived from the original on August 13, 2011. Retrieved December 5, 2014. This is a country-by-country tabulation, based on the enumeration of specific individual church locations and leaders. While it is known to under-represent certain developing countries, it is the largest such enumeration, and improves significantly on earlier broad-based estimates having no supporting detail.
  4. ↑ "How Many churches of Christ Are There?". The churches of Christ. Retrieved March 20, 2020.
  5. ↑ Royster, Carl H. (June 2020). "Churches of Christ in the United States" (PDF). 21st Century Christian. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 29, 2020. Retrieved August 26, 2020.
  6. ↑ "Frequently Asked Questions". Christian Courier. Archived from the original on May 6, 2020. Retrieved March 20, 2020.
  7. ↑ "About World Video Bible School". WBVS. Retrieved March 20, 2020.
  8. ↑ "About The Christian Chronicle". The Christian Chronicle. Retrieved March 31, 2021.
  9. ↑ "What We Believe". Apologetics Press. Retrieved March 20, 2020.
  10. ↑ Miller, Dave (December 31, 2002). "Who Are These People". Apologetics Press. Retrieved March 23, 2020.
  11. ↑ "Reaching the Lost" (PDF). House to House. Jacksonville church of Christ. July 2019. p. 2. Retrieved March 20, 2020. under the oversight of the elders
  12. ↑ Hughes, Richard Thomas (2001). The Churches of Christ. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 5. ISBN   978-0-275-97074-1.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Rubel Shelly, I Just Want to Be a Christian, 20th Century Christian, Nashville, Tennessee 1984, ISBN   0-89098-021-7.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Baxter, Batsell Barrett. "Who are the churches of Christ and what do they believe in?". Archived from the original on June 16, 2006. Also available via these links to church-of-christ.org Archived 2014-02-09 at the Wayback Machine , cris.com/~mmcoc (archived June 22, 2006) and scriptureessay.com (archived July 13, 2006).
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 C. Leonard Allen and Richard T. Hughes, "Discovering Our Roots: The Ancestry of the Churches of Christ," Abilene Christian University Press, 1988, ISBN   0-89112-006-8.
  16. ↑ Howard, V. E. (1971). What Is the Church of Christ? (4th (revised) ed.). Central Printers & Publishers. p. 29. ASIN   B001EM1NHM. The church of Jesus Christ is non-denominational. It is neither Catholic, Jewish nor Protestant. It was not founded in 'protest' of any institution, and it is not the product of the 'Restoration' or 'Reformation.' It is the product of the seed of the kingdom (Luke 8:11ff) grown in the hearts of men.
  17. 1 2 Batsell Barrett Baxter and Carroll Ellis, Neither Catholic, Protestant nor Jew, Church of Christ (1960) ASIN: B00073CQPM. According to Richard Thomas Hughes in Reviving the Ancient Faith: The Story of Churches of Christ in America, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1996, ISBN   0-8028-4086-8, ISBN   978-0-8028-4086-8, this is "arguably the most widely distributed tract ever published by the churches of Christ or anyone associated with that tradition."
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Samuel S. Hill, Charles H. Lippy, Charles Reagan Wilson, Encyclopedia of Religion in the South, Mercer University Press, 2005, ISBN   0-86554-758-0, ISBN   978-0-86554-758-2.
  19. ↑ "On the cornerstone of the Southside Church of Christ in Springfield, Missouri, is this inscription: 'Church of Christ, Founded in Jerusalem, A.D. 33. This building erected in 1953.' This is not an unusual claim; for similar wording can be found on buildings of churches of Christ in many parts of the United States. The Christians who use such cornerstones reason that the church of Jesus Christ began on Pentecost, A.D. 33. Therefore, to be true to the New Testament, the twentieth-century church must trace its origins to the first century." Robert W. Hooper, A Distinct People: A History of the Churches of Christ in the 20th Century, p. 1, Simon and Schuster, 1993, ISBN   1-878990-26-8, ISBN   978-1-878990-26-6.
  20. ↑ "Traditional Churches of Christ have pursued the restorationist vision with extraordinary zeal. Indeed, the cornerstones of many Church of Christ buildings read 'Founded, A.D. 33.' " Jill, et al. (2005), "Encyclopedia of Religion", p. 212.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Stuart M. Matlins, Arthur J. Magida, J. Magida, How to Be a Perfect Stranger: A Guide to Etiquette in Other People's Religious Ceremonies, Wood Lake Publishing Inc., 1999, ISBN   1-896836-28-3, ISBN   978-1-896836-28-7, Chapter 6 – Churches of Christ.
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Carmen Renee Berry, The Unauthorized Guide to Choosing a Church, Brazos Press, 2003, ISBN   1-58743-036-3.
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Ron Rhodes, The Complete Guide to Christian Denominations, Harvest House Publishers, 2005, ISBN   0-7369-1289-4.
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 V. E. Howard, What Is the Church of Christ? 4th Edition (Revised) Central Printers & Publishers, West Monroe, Louisiana, 1971.
  25. ↑ Goldberg, Jonah. Eschatological Weeds. The Remnant. Retrieved June 6, 2020– via Apple Podcasts.
  26. ↑ Col. 2:14.
  27. 1 2 3 4 5 Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, entry on Hermeneutics.
  28. 1 2 3 Edward C. Wharton, The Church of Christ: The Distinctive Nature of the New Testament Church, Gospel Advocate Co., 1997, ISBN   0-89225-464-5.
  29. ↑ David Pharr, The Beginning of Our Confidence: Seven Weeks of Daily Lessons for New Christians, 21st Century Christian, 2000, ISBN   0-89098-374-7.
  30. ↑ "Churches of Christ - 10 Things to Know about their History and Beliefs". November 1, 2018. Retrieved July 27, 2022.
  31. 1 2 3 "Church numbers listed by country". ChurchZip. Archived from the original on August 13, 2011. Retrieved July 27, 2022. This is a country-by-country tabulation, based on the enumeration of specific individual church locations and leaders. While it is known to under-represent certain developing countries, it is the largest such enumeration, and improves significantly on earlier broad-based estimates having no supporting detail.
  32. 1 2 Barry A. Kosmin and Ariela Keysar, American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS 2008) Archived April 7, 2009, at the Wayback Machine , Trinity College, March 2009.
  33. ↑ "The Religious Composition of the United States," U.S. Religious Landscape Survey: Chapter 1, Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, Pew Research Center, February 2008.
  34. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, "Churches of Christ", in The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8.
  35. 1 2 Flavil Yeakley, Good News and Bad News: A Realistic Assessment of Churches of Christ in the United States: 2008; an mp3 of the author presenting some of the results at the 2009 East Tennessee School of Preaching and Ministry lectureship on March 4, 2009, is available here [ permanent dead link ] and a PowerPoint presentation from the 2008 CMU conference using some of the survey results posted on the Campus Ministry United website is available here.
  36. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Monroe E. Hawley, Redigging the Wells: Seeking Undenominational Christianity, Quality Publications, Abilene, Texas, 1976, ISBN   0-89137-512-0 (paper), ISBN   0-89137-513-9 (cloth)
  37. 1 2 3 4 J. W. Shepherd, The Church, the Falling Away, and the Restoration, Gospel Advocate Company, Nashville, Tennessee, 1929 (reprinted in 1973)
  38. ↑ "Campbellism and the Church of Christ" Archived 2015-01-09 at the Wayback Machine Morey 2014.
  39. ↑ The Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary describes the term as "sometimes offensive." Merriam-Webster, I. (2003). Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary. (Eleventh ed.). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Inc. Entry on "Campbellite."
  40. ↑ Campbell, Alexander. Walters, Joseph A. (ed.). "On the Breaking of Bread". Scroll Publishing. Retrieved November 21, 2024.
  41. 1 2 Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, "Slogans", in The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8,
  42. ↑ Thomas Campbell, Declaration and Address, 1809, available on-line here
  43. ↑ O. E. Shields, "The Church of Christ," The Word and Work , VOL. XXXIX, No. 9, September 1945.
  44. ↑ M. C. Kurfees, "Bible Things by Bible Names – The General and Local Senses of the Term 'Church'", Gospel Advocate (October 14, 1920):1104–1105, as reprinted in Appendix II: Restoration Documents of I Just Want to Be a Christian, Rubel Shelly (1984)
  45. ↑ J. C. McQuiddy, "The New Testament Church", Gospel Advocate (November 11, 1920):1097–1098, as reprinted in Appendix II: Restoration Documents of I Just Want to Be a Christian, Rubel Shelly (1984)
  46. 1 2 3 M. C. Kurfees, "Bible Things by Bible Names – Different Designations of the Church Further Considered", Gospel Advocate (September 30, 1920):958–959, as reprinted in Appendix II: Restoration Documents of I Just Want to Be a Christian, Rubel Shelly (1984)
  47. ↑ Within the Restoration Movement, congregations that do not use musical instruments in worship use the name "Church of Christ" almost exclusively; congregations that do use musical instruments most often use the term "Christian Church." Monroe E. Hawley, Redigging the Wells: Seeking Undenominational Christianity, 1976, page 89.
  48. ↑ As, e.g., for listings in the yellow pages.
  49. 1 2 3 4 5 Leroy Garrett, The Stone-Campbell Movement: The Story of the American Restoration Movement, College Press, 2002, ISBN   0-89900-909-3, ISBN   978-0-89900-909-4, 573 pages
  50. ↑ Examples of this usage include the Gospel Advocate website Archived February 8, 2009, at the Wayback Machine ("Serving the church of Christ since 1855" – accessed October 26, 2008); the Lipscomb University website ("Classes in every area are taught in a faith-informed approach by highly qualified faculty who represent the range of perspectives that exist among churches of Christ." – accessed October 26, 2008); the Freed-Hardeman University website Archived 2008-10-09 at the Wayback Machine ("Freed-Hardeman University is a private institution, associated with churches of Christ, dedicated to moral and spiritual values, academic excellence, and service in a friendly, supportive environment... The university is governed by a self-perpetuating board of trustees who are members of churches of Christ and who hold the institution in trust for its founders, alumni, and supporters." – accessed October 26, 2008); Batsell Barrett Baxter, Who are the churches of Christ and what do they believe in? (Available on-line here Archived 2008-06-19 at the Wayback Machine , here, here Archived 2014-02-09 at the Wayback Machine , here Archived 2008-05-09 at the Wayback Machine and here Archived 2010-11-30 at the Wayback Machine ); Batsell Barrett Baxter and Carroll Ellis, Neither Catholic, Protestant nor Jew, tract, Church of Christ (1960); Monroe E. Hawley, Redigging the Wells: Seeking Undenominational Christianity, Quality Publications, Abilene, Texas, 1976; Rubel Shelly, I Just Want to Be a Christian, 20th Century Christian, Nashville, Tennessee 1984; and V. E. Howard, What Is the Church of Christ? 4th Edition (Revised), 1971; Website of the Frisco church of Christ ("Welcome to the Home page for the Frisco church of Christ in Frisco, Texas." – accessed October 27, 2008); website of the church of Christ Internet Ministries ("The purpose of this Web Site is to unite the churches of Christ in one accord." – accessed October 27, 2008) "The Church of Christ at Woodson Chapel : Welcome!". Archived from the original on May 2, 2008. Retrieved May 21, 2009.
  51. ↑ "Churches of Christ from the beginning have maintained no formal organization structures larger than the local congregations and no official journals or vehicles declaring sanctioned positions. Consensus views do, however, often emerge through the influence of opinion leaders who express themselves in journals, at lectureships, or at area preacher meetings and other gatherings" page 213, Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages
  52. ↑ "Churches of Christ adhere to a strict congregationalism that cooperates in various projects overseen by one congregation or organized as parachurch enterprises, but many congregations hold themselves apart from such cooperative projects." Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, page 206, entry on Church, Doctrine of the
  53. ↑ "It is nothing less than phenomenal that the Churches of Christ get so much done without any centralized planning or structure. Everything is ad hoc. Most programs emerge from the inspiration and commitment of a single congregation or even a single person. Worthwhile projects survive and prosper by the voluntary cooperation of other individuals and congregations." Page 449, Leroy Garrett, The Stone-Campbell Movement: The Story of the American Restoration Movement, College Press, 2002, ISBN   0-89900-909-3, ISBN   978-0-89900-909-4, 573 pages
  54. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on Ministry
  55. ↑ Everett Ferguson, "Authority and Tenure of Elders", Archived 2008-05-16 at the Wayback Machine Restoration Quarterly , Vol. 18 No. 3 (1975): 142–150
  56. 1 2 3 4 5 Everett Ferguson, The Church of Christ: A Biblical Ecclesiology for Today, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1996, ISBN   0-8028-4189-9, ISBN   978-0-8028-4189-6, 443 pages
  57. 1 2 Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on Elders, Eldership
  58. ↑ "Where elderships do not exist, most congregations function through a 'business meeting' system that may include any member of the congregation or, in other cases, the men of the church." Page 531, Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on Ministry
  59. ↑ Roberts, Price (1979). Studies for New Converts. Cincinnati: The Standard Publishing Company. pp. 53–56.
  60. ↑ Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on Preaching
  61. ↑ Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on Schools of Preaching
  62. ↑ R. B. Sweet, Now That I'm a Christian, Sweet Publishing, 1948 (revised 2003), ISBN   0-8344-0129-0
  63. ↑ Jeffery S. Stevenson, All People, All Times Rethinking Biblical Authority in Churches of Christ, Xulon Press, 2009, ISBN   1-60791-539-1, ISBN   978-1-60791-539-3
  64. 1 2 3 4 Richard Thomas Hughes and R. L. Roberts, The Churches of Christ, 2nd Edition, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001, ISBN   0-313-23312-8, ISBN   978-0-313-23312-8, 345 pages
  65. 1 2 Ralph K. Hawkins, A Heritage in Crisis: Where We've Been, Where We Are, and Where We're Going in the Churches of Christ, University Press of America, 2008, 147 pages, ISBN   0-7618-4080-X, 9780761840800
  66. 1 2 3 Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on Instrumental Music
  67. ↑ Ross, Bobby Jr (January 2007). "Nation's largest Church of Christ adding instrumental service". christianchronicle.org. The Christian Chronicle. Archived from the original on May 16, 2013. Retrieved September 19, 2008.
  68. ↑ Ross, Bobby Jr. "Who are we?". Features. The Christian Chronicle. Archived from the original on December 19, 2011. Retrieved August 26, 2020.
  69. ↑ "Whenever there are disagreements in the Churches of Christ, a 'reference to the scriptures is made in settling every religious question. A pronouncement from the scripture is considered the final word.'" page 240, Carmen Renee Berry, The Unauthorized Guide to Choosing a Church, Brazos Press, 2003
  70. ↑ See F. LaGard Smith, "The Cultural Church", 20th Century Christian, 1992, 237 pages, ISBN   978-0-89098-131-3
  71. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Thomas H. Olbricht, "Hermeneutics in the Churches of Christ," Archived 2008-09-22 at the Wayback Machine Restoration Quarterly , Vol. 37/No. 1 (1995)
  72. ↑ Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, page 219
  73. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Tom J. Nettles, Richard L. Pratt, Jr., John H. Armstrong, Robert Kolb, Understanding Four Views on Baptism, Zondervan, 2007, ISBN   0-310-26267-4, ISBN   978-0-310-26267-1, 222 pages
  74. 1 2 3 4 Rees Bryant, Baptism, Why Wait?: Faith's Response in Conversion, College Press, 1999, ISBN   0-89900-858-5, ISBN   978-0-89900-858-5, 224 pages
  75. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on Baptism
  76. 1 2 Harold Hazelip, Gary Holloway, Randall J. Harris, Mark C. Black, Theology Matters: In Honor of Harold Hazelip: Answers for the Church Today, College Press, 1998, ISBN   0-89900-813-5, ISBN   978-0-89900-813-4, 368 pages
  77. 1 2 Douglas A. Foster, "Churches of Christ and Baptism: An Historical and Theological Overview," Archived May 20, 2010, at the Wayback Machine Restoration Quarterly , Volume 43/Number 2 (2001)
  78. ↑ Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on Regeneration
  79. 1 2 Wakefield, John C. (January 31, 2014). "Stone-Campbell tradition, the". The Grove Dictionary of American Music, 2nd edition. Grove Music Online.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
  80. ↑ Ross, Bobby Jr (January 2007). "Nation's largest Church of Christ adding instrumental service". christianchronicle.org. The Christian Chronicle. Archived from the original on May 16, 2013. Retrieved September 19, 2008.
  81. ↑ De Gennaro, Nancy (April 16, 2015). "Local Church of Christ adds Instruments to Worship". Daily News Journal. Murfreesboro. Retrieved January 6, 2017.
  82. ↑ Hall, Heidi (March 6, 2015). "Church of Christ opens door to musical instruments". USA Today. The Tennessean. Retrieved January 6, 2017. About 20 of 12,000 Church of Christ congregations nationwide offer instrumental music
  83. 1 2 3 4 Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on Theology
  84. ↑ "Creeds are rejected because they are believed to generate schisms in the body of Christ. As well, theological paradigms (such as Calvinism and Arminianism) are avoided because the New Testament alone is the proper guide to doctrinal belief." Ron Rhodes, The Complete Guide to Christian Denominations, Harvest House Publishers, 2005, ISBN   0-7369-1289-4, page 123.
  85. ↑ Dispensational premillennialism is characterized by an emphasis on the rapture, the restoration of Israel, Armageddon and related ideas.
  86. 1 2 Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on Boll, Robert Henry
  87. ↑ Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on Eschatology
  88. ↑ Robert E. Hooper, A Distinct People: A History of the Churches of Christ in the 20th Century (West Monroe, LA: Howard Publishing, 1994), pp. 131–180 et passim, ISBN   1-878990-26-8.
  89. ↑ Mac Lynn, Churches of Christ in the United States: inclusive of her commonwealth and territories, Twentieth Century Christian Books, 2000, ISBN   0-89098-172-8, ISBN   978-0-89098-172-6, 682 pages
  90. 1 2 3 4 Douglas A. Foster, "Waves of the Spirit Against a Rational Rock: The Impact of the Pentecostal, Charismatic and Third Wave Movements on American Churches of Christ," Archived 2011-09-27 at the Wayback Machine Restoration Quarterly , 45:1, 2003
  91. ↑ See for example, Harvey Floyd, Is the Holy Spirit for me?: A search for the meaning of the Spirit in today's church, 20th Century Christian, 1981, ISBN   978-0-89098-446-8, 128 pages
  92. ↑ Olbricht, Thomas H (January 1, 2004). "Barton W. Stone and Walter Scott on the Holy Spirit and Ministry". Leaven. 12 (3): 1–6 – via Google Scholar.
  93. ↑ "An Address to the Christian Churches, Second Edition (1821)". webfiles.acu.edu. Retrieved July 5, 2024.
  94. ↑ "Alexander Campbell on Trinity and Christology". John Mark Hicks. March 18, 2013. Retrieved July 5, 2024.
  95. ↑ Demmitt, Greg. "The Christologies of Barton Stone and Alexander Campbell" (PDF). Restoration Fellowship. Retrieved July 5, 2024.
  96. ↑ Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Restoration, Historical Models of
  97. 1 2 3 Roy B. Ward, "The Restoration Principle": A Critical Analysis," Archived 2013-12-11 at the Wayback Machine Restoration Quarterly , Vol. 8, No. 4, 1965
  98. 1 2 3 4 Leroy Garrett (editor), "Restoration or Reformation?," Restoration Review, Volume 22, Number 4, April 1980
  99. 1 2 3 Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on "Restoration," Meanings of Within the Movement
  100. ↑ Leroy Garrett (editor), "Why Church of Christ Exclusivism Must Go," Restoration Review, Volume 26, Number 8, October 1984
  101. ↑ Leroy Garrett (editor), "What We've Been Saying (2)," Restoration Review, Volume 34, Number 9, November 1992
  102. ↑ For example:
  103. ↑ Mack Lyon, Churches of Christ: Who Are They?, Publishing Designs, Inc., Huntsville, Alabama, 2006
  104. ↑ Hans Godwin Grimm. (1963). Tradition and History of the Early Churches of Christ In Central Europe. Translated by H.L. Schug. Firm Foundation Publishing House. ASIN   B0006WF106.
  105. ↑ Keith Sisman, Traces of the Kingdom, 2nd edition, self-published under the imprint "Forbidden Books," 2011, ISBN   978-0-9564937-1-2.
  106. ↑ Jeff. W. Childers, Douglas A. Foster and Jack R. Reese, The Crux of the Matter, ACU Press, 2002, ISBN   0-89112-036-X
  107. ↑ "U.S. religious groups and their political leanings". Pew Research Center. Retrieved March 20, 2020.
  108. ↑ bobbyross (February 25, 2016). "Elephant in the pews: Is the GOP the party of Churches of Christ?". The Christian Chronicle. Retrieved March 20, 2020.
  109. ↑ "Political ideology among members of the Churches of Christ - Religion in America: U.S. Religious Data, Demographics and Statistics". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. Retrieved March 20, 2020.
  110. ↑ "Homosexuality and Transgenderism: The Science Supports the Bible". apologeticspress.org. Retrieved March 20, 2020.
  111. ↑ "Straight Talk About Homosexuality". Christian Courier. Archived from the original on March 20, 2020. Retrieved March 20, 2020.
  112. ↑ Hans Rollmann, "In Essentials Unity: The Pre-history of a Restoration Movement Slogan," Restoration Quarterly , Volume 39/Number 3 (1997)
  113. ↑ Garrison, Winfred Earnest and DeGroot, Alfred T. (1948). The Disciples of Christ, A History, St Louis, Missouri: The Bethany Press
  114. ↑ Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, Introductory section entitled Stone-Campbell History Over Three Centuries: A Survey and Analysis
  115. ↑ Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, Introductory Chronology
  116. 1 2 Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on Great Awakenings
  117. 1 2 3 McAlister, Lester G. and Tucker, William E. (1975), Journey in Faith: A History of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) – St. Louis, Chalice Press, ISBN   978-0-8272-1703-4
  118. 1 2 3 Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on Missionary Societies, Controversy Over, pp. 534-537
  119. ↑ Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on American Christian Missionary Society, pages 24-26
  120. ↑ Reid, D. G., Linder, R. D., Shelley, B. L., & Stout, H. S. (1990). Dictionary of Christianity in America. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. Entry on Churches of Christ (Non-Instrumental)
  121. ↑ David Lipscomb, 1899, as quoted by Leroy Garrett on page 104 of The Stone-Campbell Movement: The Story of the American Restoration Movement, College Press, 2002, ISBN   0-89900-909-3, ISBN   978-0-89900-909-4, 573 pages
  122. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on Race Relations
  123. ↑ David Lipscomb, Gospel Advocate, 49 (1 August 1907): 488–489.
  124. ↑ Brown, Michael D (June 6, 2012). "Despite school sentiment, Harding's leader said no to integration". Arkansas Times. Retrieved December 29, 2018.
  125. 1 2 "The manner in which the brethren in some quarters are going in for the negro meetings leads one to wonder whether they are trying to make white folks out of the negroes or negroes out of the white folks. The trend of the general mix-up seems to be toward the latter. Reliable reports have come to me of white women, members of the church, becoming so animated over a certain colored preacher as to go up to him after a sermon and shake hands with him holding his hand in both of theirs. That kind of thing will turn the head of most white preachers, and sometimes affect their conduct, and anybody ought to know that it will make fools out of the negroes. For any woman in the church to so far forget her dignity, and lower herself so, just because a negro has learned enough about the gospel to preach it to his race, is pitiable indeed. Her husband should take her in charge unless he has gone crazy, too. In that case somebody ought to take both of them in charge." Foy E. Wallace, Vol. 3, No. 8 March 1941, "Negro Meetings for White People," in the Bible Banner.
  126. ↑ Don Haymes (June 9, 1961). "Abilene Christian College Desegregates its Graduate School". The Christian Chronicle . 18: 1, 6.
  127. ↑ Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on Southwestern Christian College
  128. ↑ Randy Harshbarger, "A history of the institutional controversy among Texas Churches of Christ: 1945 to the present," M.A. thesis, Stephen F. Austin State University, 2007, 149 pages; AAT 1452110
  129. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on International Churches of Christ
  130. 1 2 3 4 Paden, Russell (July 1995). "The Boston Church of Christ". In Timothy Miller (ed.). America's Alternative Religions. Albany: State University of New York Press. pp. 133–36. ISBN   978-0-7914-2397-4 . Retrieved August 7, 2007.
  131. 1 2 Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on Africa, Missions in
  132. 1 2 3 Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on Asia, Missions in
  133. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on Australia, The Movement in
  134. ↑ Wayne Turner, "The Strangers Among Us," Archived March 1, 2010, at the Wayback Machine Gospel Herald, February 2007
  135. ↑ "Church of Christ Directory," Archived 2013-09-27 at the Wayback Machine Gospel Herald website (accessed December 6, 2013)
  136. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on Great Britain and Ireland, Churches of Christ in
  137. 1 2 3 4 Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN   0-8028-3898-7, ISBN   978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on Europe, Missions in
  138. ↑ David M. Thompson, Let Sects and Parties Fall: A Short History of the Association of Churches of Christ in Great Britain and Ireland, Berean Publishing Trust (January 1980), ISBN   978-0-85050-012-7, 160 pages
  139. ↑ Joe Nisbet, gen. ed. Historical Survey of Churches of Christ in the British Isles. Aberdeen, Scotland, 1995. 580 pages
  140. ↑ "As Igrejas de Cristo / Cristās e o Movimento de Restauroção" [The Churches of Christ / Christians and the Restoration Movement]. www.movimentoderestauracao.com (in Portuguese). Movimento de Restauração. Archived from the original on April 29, 2018. Retrieved June 17, 2019. (English and various other translations available)

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