UBA2 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Aliases | UBA2 , ARX, SAE2, HRIHFB2115, ubiquitin like modifier activating enzyme 2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
External IDs | OMIM: 613295 MGI: 1858313 HomoloGene: 4018 GeneCards: UBA2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Ubiquitin-like 1-activating enzyme E1B (UBLE1B) also known as SUMO-activating enzyme subunit 2 (SAE2) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the UBA2 gene. [5]
Posttranslational modification of proteins by the addition of the small protein SUMO (see SUMO1), or sumoylation, regulates protein structure and intracellular localization. SAE1 and UBA2 form a heterodimer that functions as a SUMO-activating enzyme for the sumoylation of proteins. [5] [6]
The UBA2 cDNA fragment 2683 bp long and encodes a peptide of 640 amino acids. [6] The predicted protein sequence is more analogous to yeast UBA2 (35% identity) than human UBA3 or E1 (in ubiquitin pathway). The UBA gene is located on chromosome 19. [7]
Uba2 subunit is 640 aa residues long with a molecular weight of 72 kDa. [8] It consists of three domains: an adenylation domain (containing adenylation active site), a catalytic Cys domain (containing the catalytic Cys173 residue participated in thioester bond formation), and a ubiquitin-like domain. SUMO-1 binds on Uba2 between the catalytic Cys domain and UbL domain. [9]
SUMO activating enzyme (E1, heterodimer of SAE1 and UBA2) catalyzes the reaction of activating SUMO-1 and transferring it to Ubc9 (the only known E2 for SUMOylation). The reaction happens in three steps: adenylation, thioester bond formation, and SUMO transfer to E2. First, the carboxyl group of SUMO C-terminal glycine residue attacks ATP, forming SUMO-AMP and pyrophosphate. Next, the thiol group of a catalytic cysteine in the UBA2 active site attacks SUMO-AMP, forming a high energy thioester bond between UBA2 and the C-terminal glycine of SUMO and releasing AMP. Finally, SUMO is transferred to an E2 cysteine, forming another thioester bond. [9] [10] [11]
Ubiquitin tag has a well understood role of directing protein towards degradation by proteasome. [12] The role SUMO molecules play are more complicated and much less well understood. SUMOylation consequences include altering substrate affinity for other proteins or with DNA, changing substrate localization, and blocking ubiquitin binding (which prevents substrate degradation). For some proteins, SUMOylation doesn’t seem to have a function. [10] [13]
Transcription factor NF-kB in unstimulated cells is inactivated by IkBa inhibitor protein binding. The activation of NF-kB is achieved by ubiquitination and subsequent degradation of IkBa. SUMOylation of IkBa has a strong inhibitory effect on NF-kB-dependent transcription. This may be a mechanism for cell to regulate the number of NF-kB available for transcriptional activation. [14]
Transcription factor p53 is a tumor suppressor acting by activating genes involved in cell cycle regulation and apoptosis. Its level is regulated by mdm2-dependent ubiquitination. SUMOylation of p53 (at a distinct lysine residue from ubiquitin modification sites) prevents proteasome degradation and acts as an additional regulator to p53 response. [15]
Studies of yeast budding and fission have revealed that SUMOylation may be important in cell cycle regulation. [16] During a cell cycle, the UBA2 concentration doesn't undergo substantial change while SAE1 level shows dramatic fluctuation, suggesting regulation of SAE1 expression rather than UBA2 might be a way for cell to regulate SUMOylation. However, at time points when SAE1 levels are low, little evidence of UBA2-containing protein complexes are found other than SAE1-UBA2 heterodimer. One possible explanation would be that these complexes exist only for a short period of time, thus not obvious in cell extracts. UBA2 expression is found in most organs including the brain, lung and heart, indicating probable existence of SUMOylation pathway in these organs. An elevated level of UBA2 (as well as all other enzyme components of the pathway) is found in testis, suggesting possible role for UBA2 in meiosis or spermatogenesis. Inside the nucleus, UBA2 is distributed throughout nuclei but not found in nucleoli, suggesting SUMOylation may occur primarily in nuclei. Cytoplasmic existence of SAE 1 and UBA2 is also possible and is responsible for conjugation of cytoplasmic substrates. [17]
SAE2 has been shown to interact with
Ubiquitin is a small regulatory protein found in most tissues of eukaryotic organisms, i.e., it is found ubiquitously. It was discovered in 1975 by Gideon Goldstein and further characterized throughout the late 1970s and 1980s. Four genes in the human genome code for ubiquitin: UBB, UBC, UBA52 and RPS27A.
Ubiquitin-like modifier activating enzyme 1 (UBA1) is an enzyme which in humans is encoded by the UBA1 gene. UBA1 participates in ubiquitination and the NEDD8 pathway for protein folding and degradation, among many other biological processes. This protein has been linked to X-linked spinal muscular atrophy type 2, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancers.
In molecular biology, SUMOproteins are a family of small proteins that are covalently attached to and detached from other proteins in cells to modify their function. This process is called SUMOylation. SUMOylation is a post-translational modification involved in various cellular processes, such as nuclear-cytosolic transport, transcriptional regulation, apoptosis, protein stability, response to stress, and progression through the cell cycle.
Ubiquitin-activating enzymes, also known as E1 enzymes, catalyze the first step in the ubiquitination reaction, which can target a protein for degradation via a proteasome. This covalent bond of ubiquitin or ubiquitin-like proteins to targeted proteins is a major mechanism for regulating protein function in eukaryotic organisms. Many processes such as cell division, immune responses and embryonic development are also regulated by post-translational modification by ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like proteins.
SUMO enzymatic cascade catalyzes the dynamic posttranslational modification process of sumoylation. The Small Ubiquitin-related Modifier, SUMO-1, is a ubiquitin-like family member that is conjugated to its substrates through three discrete enzymatic steps : activation, involving the E1 enzyme (SAE1/SAE2); conjugation, involving the E2 enzyme (UBE2I); substrate modification, through the cooperation of the E2 and E3 protein ligases.
Histone-modifying enzymes are enzymes involved in the modification of histone substrates after protein translation and affect cellular processes including gene expression. To safely store the eukaryotic genome, DNA is wrapped around four core histone proteins, which then join to form nucleosomes. These nucleosomes further fold together into highly condensed chromatin, which renders the organism's genetic material far less accessible to the factors required for gene transcription, DNA replication, recombination and repair. Subsequently, eukaryotic organisms have developed intricate mechanisms to overcome this repressive barrier imposed by the chromatin through histone modification, a type of post-translational modification which typically involves covalently attaching certain groups to histone residues. Once added to the histone, these groups elicit either a loose and open histone conformation, euchromatin, or a tight and closed histone conformation, heterochromatin. Euchromatin marks active transcription and gene expression, as the light packing of histones in this way allows entry for proteins involved in the transcription process. As such, the tightly packed heterochromatin marks the absence of current gene expression.
Small ubiquitin-related modifier 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SUMO1 gene.
SUMO-conjugating enzyme UBC9 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the UBE2I gene. It is also sometimes referred to as "ubiquitin conjugating enzyme E2I" or "ubiquitin carrier protein 9", even though these names do not accurately describe its function.
Small ubiquitin-related modifier 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SUMO2 gene.
Ran GTPase-activating protein 1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the RANGAP1 gene.
Small ubiquitin-related modifier 3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SUMO3 gene.
Ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2 N is a protein that in humans is encoded by the UBE2N gene.
SUMO-activating enzyme subunit 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SAE1 gene.
Ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2 variant 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the UBE2V2 gene. Ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2 variant proteins constitute a distinct subfamily within the E2 protein family.
NEDD8-activating enzyme E1 regulatory subunit is a protein that in humans is encoded by the NAE1 gene.
NEDD8-activating enzyme E1 catalytic subunit is a protein that in humans is encoded by the UBA3 gene.
Ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2 E3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the UBE2E3 gene.
NEDD8-conjugating enzyme Ubc12 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the UBE2M gene.
Ubiquitin-fold modifier 1, also known as UFM1, is a protein which in humans is encoded by the UFM1 gene.
Arabidopsis SUMO-conjugation enzyme (AtSCE1) is an enzyme that is a member of the small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) post-translational modification pathway. This process, and the SCE1 enzyme with it, is highly conserved across eukaryotes yet absent in prokaryotes. In short, this pathway results in the attachment of a small polypeptide through an isopeptide bond between modifying enzyme and the ε-amino group of a lysine residue in the substrate. In plants, the 160 amino acid SCE1 enzyme was first characterized in 2003. One functional gene copy, SCE1a, was found on chromosomes 3.