The Victoria Louise class of protected cruisers was the last class of ships of that type built for the German Imperial Navy. The class design introduced the combined clipper and ram bow and the blocky sides that typified later German armored cruisers. The class comprised five vessels, Victoria Louise, the lead ship, Hertha, Freya, Vineta, and Hansa. The ships were laid down in 1895–1896, and were launched in 1897–1898 and commissioned into the fleet over the following year.
The first three ships were 110.60 meters (362ft 10in) long and displaced 6,491 metric tons (6,388 long tons) at combat load; Vineta and Hansa were a slightly modified design. They were 110.50m (362ft 6in) long and displaced 6,705t (6,599 long tons) at full load. All five ships were armed with a main battery of two 21-centimeter (8.3in) guns and eight 15cm (5.9in) guns. The first three ships had a top speed of 19.5 knots (36.1km/h; 22.4mph); the last two were slightly slower, at 18.5 knots (34.3km/h; 21.3mph). Problems with the Niclausse boilers installed on Freya prompted the Navy to standardize boiler types in future warships.
The ships of the class served in various units in the German fleet, including on the America Station, in the East Asia Squadron, and with the home fleet. Hertha and Hansa participated in the suppression of the Boxer Uprising in China in 1900, and Vineta was involved in the Venezuela Crisis of 1902–1903. All five ships were modernized between 1905 and 1911, after which they served as training ships for naval cadets. They were mobilized into V Scouting Group at the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, but were quickly withdrawn from front-line service. They served in various secondary roles for the rest of the war. After the end of the conflict, Victoria Louise was converted into a merchant ship, but was broken up in 1923. The other four ships were scrapped in 1920–1921.
Hollmann submitted a memorandum to the Reichstag (Imperial Diet) to request funding for a new construction program. He called for a total of seven new cruisers over the following three years to replace the old screw corvettes that still made up the bulk of the cruiser force, arguing that the old screw corvettes were no longer suitable as warships, owing to the proliferation of modern unprotected and protected cruisers in even minor navies around the world, along with the advances in marine steam engines, which propelled merchant vessels to speeds at which the corvettes could not catch them. The Reichstag's budget board decried what it viewed as the limitless demands of the navy. Instead of the three ships Hollmann had requested for the 1890/1891 fiscal year, the Reichstag authorized just two, which were given the provisional designations "J" and "K". The former became the unprotected cruiser Gefion, but a minor scandal in 1891 over "K"—the navy had not finalized the design for the new ship by the time it had asked for the second installment of funds for her construction—angered the Reichstag, which revoked funding for the new ship.[2]
Attempts to secure the return of funds for "K" continued over the next three years, and included efforts in 1892 by the Reichskanzler (Chancellor) Leo von Caprivi to convince the parliament to authorize construction. The navy tried yet again for the 1893 fiscal year, but the Imperial German Army had significantly increased its own budget that year, which left no additional funding for the fleet. In fiscal year 1894, the navy made no attempt to secure funding for "K". By this time, the strategic confusion that marked the 1880s had come to a head; Alfred von Tirpitz had recently become the chief of staff at the Kaiserliches Oberkommando der Marine (Imperial Naval High Command), and he was finalizing his famous memorandum, Dienstschrift IX, which laid out his plans for the future development of the navy. Tirpitz's projections were at odds with the leadership in the RMA; he sought a combination of 1st- and 3rd-class cruisers with the sole purpose of strengthening the fleet in home waters, while the RMA still favored a mix of 1st-, 2nd-, and 4th-class cruisers optimized for commerce raiding. To make matters worse, RMA was responsible for designing new warships, but they had no input on strategic objectives or war plans, which were the high command's remit.[3]
As the RMA began work on another proposal for "K" in early 1894, Kaiser Wilhelm II interjected himself into the discussions, submitting his own proposal for a 2nd-class cruiser that was clearly inspired by contemporary French cruisers in June. The RMA decided that the new cruiser would be, at a minimum, the same size as Gefion, with roughly the same price. Wilhelm continued to submit his ideas for consideration, including two different 3rd-class cruisers. One of these vessels, submitted in October, incorporated lessons from the First Sino-Japanese War, then being fought between Japan and China. The Battle of the Yellow River appeared to show the superiority of protected cruisers armed with large quick-firing guns over larger ironclad battleships armed with larger but slower-firing guns. As a result, Wilhelm included two 21cm (8.3in) quick-firing guns into his proposal in October.[4]
Hollmann drew up a list of requirements for "K" in November, including fully enclosed and armored gun turrets for the 21cm guns, a secondary battery of 15cm (5.9in) guns, but other critical components were left undecided. The question remained open as to whether to retain the traditional two-shaft propulsion system or repeat the three-shaft arrangement pioneered with Kaiserin Augusta. Wilhelm approved the parameters that month, and the Chief Constructor, Alfred Dietrich, prepared a more detailed proposal in line with them, which the Kaiser approved on 31 December.[5]
After failing to secure budgetary approval for the new ships from the Reichstag in 1892, 1893, and 1894, the Reichstag finally authorized construction of three ships for the 1895–1896 budget year. The RMA's proposal was chosen and three 6,000-ton cruisers were begun in 1895. Two more vessels were authorized for 1896–1897.[6]
Compared to Kaiserin Augusta, Victoria Louise had a displacement that was about six percent less, though she carried a much heavier armament The resulting design were smaller scale versions of the contemporary Kaiser Friedrich III-classbattleships; they featured the same fore military mast and pole mainmast and a combination of gun turrets and casemates for the secondary battery. As was common practice in the German fleet in the 1890s, the five ships employed different types of water-tube boilers for evaluation purposes.[7] The ships' design set a precedent for later armored cruisers, with large, bulky sides and a combined clipper bow and ram.[8]
General characteristics
Line-drawing of the Victoria Louise class
The first three ships of the Victoria Louise class—Victoria Louise, Hertha, and Freya—were 109.10 meters (357ft 11in)long at the waterline and 110.60m (362ft 10in)long overall. They had a beam of 17.40m (57ft 1in) and a draft of 6.58m (21ft 7in) forward and 6.93m (22ft 9in). These ships displaced 5,660 metric tons (5,570 long tons) as designed and 6,491t (6,388 long tons) at full load. Vineta and Hansa had slightly different dimensions; they were 109.80m (360ft 3in) long at the waterline and 110.50m (362ft 6in) overall. Their beam was 17.60m (57ft 9in) and drew 7.08m (23ft 3in) forward and 7.34m (24ft 1in) aft. Their displacement was also higher than the first three ships, at 5,885t (5,792 long tons) as designed and 6,705t (6,599 long tons) at combat load.[9]
The ships' hulls were constructed with longitudinal and transverse steel frames; a single layer of wood planks were used for the hull. A layer of Muntz metal sheathing extended up to 1m (3ft 3in) above the waterline to protect against fouling of the hull. This sheathing was later removed from Victoria Louise, Hertha, and Freya. The hull was divided into twelve watertight compartments, which were later reduced to eleven, with the exception of Freya. The hull also incorporated a double bottom that extended for 60percent of the length of the hull.[9]
The ships' standard crew was 31officers and 446enlisted men, with an additional 9officers and 41enlisted while serving as a second command flagship. After their reconstruction into training ships, the crew was substantially enlarged to incorporate the trainees, with 26officers and 658sailors, 75 of whom were naval cadets and 300 others were cabin boys. The ships carried a number of smaller boats, including three picket boats, one launch, one pinnace, two cutters, two yawls, and three dinghies. After their modernization, the boats were significantly revised; the number of picket boats was reduced to one, a barge and a launch were added, the dinghies were removed, and five more cutters were added.[10]
The ships were good sea boats; they had an easy motion and were dry as a result of their high forecastles. They had a tendency to pitch when steaming downwind, however, and made severe leeway in heavy winds because of their large superstructures. They were difficult to maneuver without the center shaft engaged. Steering was controlled with a single rudder. They lost only around ten percent speed in a head sea or with the rudder hard over. In addition, as the lower coal bunkers were emptied, the ships became increasingly unstable; with empty bunkers, the ships could heel over as much as fifteen degrees in a hard turn. The modernization of the ships between 1905 and 1911 rectified this problem. They had a transverse metacentric height of .56 to .73m (1ft 10in to 2ft 5in). As built, the ships were very hot, and ventilation had to be improved before they were commissioned.[11]
Machinery
The propulsion system of all five ships consisted of three vertical 4-cylinder triple-expansion steam engines built by AG Vulcan. Steam was provided by twelve coal-fired water-tube boilers from different manufacturers, with the exception of Hansa, which received eighteen boilers. Victoria Louise and Vineta had boilers from Dürr AG, Freya had Niclausse boilers, and Hertha had Belleville boilers. Hansa was equipped with eighteen transverse Belleville boilers. The Niclausse boilers in Freya proved to be particularly troublesome, which led the Navy to use only Schulz-Thornycroft or Marine-type boilers in future vessels. The boilers were ducted into three funnels, though after their modernization between 1905 and 1908, they were trunked into two funnels.[11]
The ships' engines were rated at 10,000 metric horsepower (9,900ihp) for a top speed of 19.5 knots (36.1km/h; 22.4mph) for the first three ships and 18.5 knots (34.3km/h; 21.3mph) for the last two vessels. As built, the ships carried up to 950t (930 long tons; 1,050 short tons) of coal, which gave them a cruising range of 3,412 nautical miles (6,319km; 3,926mi) at a speed of 12 knots (22km/h; 14mph). The more efficient Marine-type boilers installed in 1905–1911 increased cruising range to 3,840nmi (7,110km; 4,420mi) at the same speed. Victoria Louise and Hertha were equipped with four electricity generators with a combined output of 224 to 271 kilowatts (300 to 363hp) at 110Volts; the last three ships had three generators with a total output of 169 to 183kW (227 to 245hp) at 110V.[9]
Armament and armor
Freya, showing the arrangement of the primary and secondary batteries
The ships' primary armament consisted of two 21cm SK L/40 C/97 built-up guns in single gun turrets, one forward and one aft. The turrets were C/97 type mounts, which were hydraulically operated and hand-loaded. The turrets had a range of elevation from -5 to 30degrees, and at maximum elevation, they had a range of 16,300m (53,500ft). Muzzle velocity was 780m/s (2,600ft/s). The guns were supplied with 58rounds of ammunition each; these were 238kg (525lb) shells.[9][12]
Eight 15cm SK L/40 guns rounded out the offensive gun armament. Four of these guns were mounted in turrets amidships and the other four were placed in casemates. These guns fired armor-piercing shells at a rate of 4to 5 per minute. The guns could depress to −7degrees and elevate to 20degrees, for a maximum range of 13,700m (14,990yd). The shells weighed 51kg (112lb) and were fired at a muzzle velocity of 735m/s (2,410ft/s). The guns were manually elevated and trained. Two of the 15cm guns were removed in the refit.[13][14]
For defense against torpedo boats, the ships also carried ten 8.8 cm SK L/30 naval guns, and an eleventh was added during the modernization. These were also mounted individually in casemates and pivot mounts. These guns fired 7.04kg (15.5lb) shell at a muzzle velocity of 590mps (1,936fps). Their rate of fire was approximately 15 shells per minute; the guns could engage targets out to 6,890m (7,530yd). The gun mounts were manually operated.[13][15] Three longer-barreled 8.8 cm SK L/35 naval guns were also added at that time.[9] The gun armament was rounded out by ten 3.7cm (1.5in) Maxim machine cannon,[8] which were removed during the refit.[9]
The ships were also equipped with three 45cm (18in)torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes, two launchers were mounted on the broadside and the third was in the bow, all below the waterline.[9] These weapons were 5.1m (201in) long and carried an 87.5kg (193lb) TNT warhead. They could be set at two speeds for different ranges. At 26 knots (48km/h; 30mph), the torpedoes had a range of 800m (870yd). At an increased speed of 32 knots (59km/h; 37mph), the range was reduced to 500m (550yd).[16]
In 1916, all of the ships of the class were disarmed, with the exception of Freya, which was re-equipped with a single 15cm gun, four 10.5 cm SK L/45 guns, and fourteen 8.8cm guns of both the L/30 and L/35 versions, for use as a gunnery training ship.[9]
Armor protection for the ships was composed of Krupp steel. The main deck was 40mm (1.6in) thick with 100mm (3.9in) thick slopes. The forward conning tower had 150mm (5.9in) thick sides and a 30mm (1.2in) thick roof. The aft conning tower was given only splinter protection, with just 12mm (0.47in) thick sides. The 21cm and 15cm gun turrets had 100mm thick sides and 30mm thick roofs. The casemate guns were also given 100mm worth of armor protection. The ships were also equipped with corkcofferdams.[9]
Victoria Louise served with the fleet for the first seven years of her career.[10] During this time, she represented Germany during the funeral of Queen Victoria in 1901.[17] In 1906, she was modernized and after 1908, used as a training ship for naval cadets.[11] In 1909, she visited the United States,[18] and at the outbreak of World War I, was mobilized into VScouting Group.[19] She was attacked unsuccessfully by the British submarineHMSE1 in October 1914,[20] and at the end of the year she was withdrawn from service. She was used as a minelayer and barracks ship based in Danzig for the rest of the war. Victoria Louise was sold in 1919 and converted into a freighter the following year, though she served in this capacity until 1923, when she was broken up for scrap.[10]
Hertha served abroad in the East Asia Squadron for the first six years of her career; she served briefly as the squadron flagship in 1900.[21] She contributed a landing party to the force that captured the Taku Forts during the Boxer Uprising in 1900.[22] After returning to Germany in 1905, she was modernized and used as a training ship in 1908, following the completion of the refit. She served in that capacity for the next six years. At the outbreak of World War I, Hertha was mobilized into VScouting Group, but served in front-line duty only briefly. She was used as a barracks ship after 1915, and ultimately sold for scrapping in 1920.[11]
Freya served in the German fleet for the initial years of her career, unlike her sister ships, all of which served abroad on foreign stations. As a result, she led a fairly uneventful career in the fleet. After a modernization in 1905–1907, Freya was used as a school ship for cadets.[10] While visiting Canada in 1908, she accidentally rammed and sank a Canadian schooner, killing nine sailors.[23] At the outbreak of World War I, Freya was mobilized into VScouting Group, but served in front-line duty only briefly. She was used as a barracks ship after 1915, and ultimately sold for scrapping in 1921.[10]
Vineta served abroad in the American Station for the first several years of her career.[21] While on station in the Americas, she participated in the Venezuela Crisis of 1902–1903 and bombarded several Venezuelan fortresses.[24] She returned to Germany in 1905 and was used as a torpedo training ship in 1908. She was modernized in 1909–1911, after which she was used as a school ship for naval cadets.[11] In November 1912, she participated in an international naval protest of the First Balkan War.[25] At the outbreak of World War I, Vineta was mobilized into VScouting Group like her sisters, but served in front-line duty only briefly. She was used as a barracks ship after 1915, and ultimately sold for scrapping in 1920.[10]
Hansa served abroad in the East Asia Squadron for the first six years of her career. Along with Hertha, she contributed a landing party to the force that captured the Taku Forts during the Boxer Uprising.[22] In August 1904, she participated in the internment of the Russian battleship Tsesarevich after the Battle of the Yellow Sea during the Russo-Japanese War.[26] After returning to Germany in 1906, she was modernized and used as a training ship in 1909, following the completion of the refit. At the outbreak of World War I, Hansa was mobilized into VScouting Group, but served in front-line duty only briefly. She was used as a barracks ship after 1915, and ultimately sold for scrapping in 1920.[11]
The Mackensen class was the last class of battlecruisers to be built by Germany in World War I. The design initially called for seven ships, but three of them were redesigned as the Ersatz Yorck class. Of the four ships of the Mackensen class, Mackensen, Graf Spee, and Prinz Eitel Friedrich were launched, and Fürst Bismarck was not—but none were completed, after wartime shipbuilding priorities were redirected towards U-boats—and the ships were broken up in the early 1920s. The lead ship of the class was named for August von Mackensen, a prominent military commander during the war. In response to the Mackensen-class ships, the British Royal Navy laid down the Admiral-class battlecruisers, all but one of which would eventually be cancelled; the sole survivor, HMS Hood, was completed after the end of the war.
SMS Hela was an aviso built for the German Kaiserliche Marine in the mid-1890s, the last vessel of that type to be built by the German Empire. As the culmination of the type in German service, she represented significant improvements over earlier vessels, particularly the Wacht and Meteor classes, which had been disappointments in service. She was intended to serve as a fleet scout and as a flotilla leader for torpedo boats. Hela marked a step toward the development of the light cruiser. Armed with a battery of four 8.8 cm (3.5 in) guns and three 45 cm (17.7 in) torpedo tubes, the ship proved to be too weakly-armed for front-line combat.
SMS Hansa was a protected cruiser of the Victoria Louise-class cruiser, built for the German Imperial Navy in the 1890s, along with her sister ships Victoria Louise, Hertha, Vineta, and Freya. Hansa was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1896, launched in March 1898, and commissioned into the Navy in April 1899. The ship was armed with a battery of two 21 cm guns and eight 15 cm guns and had a top speed of 19 knots.
The Brandenburg class consisted of four pre-dreadnought battleships built for the German Kaiserliche Marine, the first modern battleships of the fleet. The four ships of the class—Brandenburg, Wörth, Weissenburg, and Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm—were the first ocean-going capital ships built for the German fleet in nearly two decades, owing to reluctance in the Reichstag to fund large projects. They followed a series of small coastal defense ships, and though in retrospect they anticipated the buildup that created the High Seas Fleet, they were ordered as part of a construction program that reflected the strategic and tactical confusion that affected many navies in the 1880s. The design process that resulted in the Brandenburg class was very lengthy, with proposals that ranged from outdated casemate ships to versions with two twin-gun turrets placed side by side. The designers ultimately settled on ships that were armed with an unusual main battery of six 28 cm (11 in) guns at a time when all foreign battleships were built with four or fewer heavy guns.
SMS Fürst Bismarck was Germany's first armored cruiser, built for the Kaiserliche Marine before the turn of the 20th century. The ship was named for the German statesman Otto von Bismarck. The design for Fürst Bismarck was an improvement over the previous Victoria Louise-class protected cruisers—Fürst Bismarck was significantly larger and better armed than her predecessors.
SMS Victoria Louise was the lead ship of her class of protected cruisers, built for the German Imperial Navy in the late 1890s. She was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in 1895, launched in March 1897, and commissioned into the German fleet in February 1899. She was named after Princess Victoria Louise, the daughter of Kaiser Wilhelm II. The ship was armed with a battery of two 21 cm guns and eight 15 cm guns and had a top speed of 19.2 knots.
SMS Hertha was a protected cruiser of the Victoria Louise class, built for the German Imperial Navy in the 1890s. Hertha was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in 1895, launched in April 1897, and commissioned into the Navy in July 1898. The ship was armed with a battery of two 21 cm guns and eight 15 cm guns and had a top speed of 19 knots.
SMS Freya was a protected cruiser of the Victoria Louise class, built for the German Imperial Navy in the 1890s, along with her sister ships Victoria Louise, Hertha, Vineta, and Hansa. Freya was laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Danzig in 1895, launched in April 1897, and commissioned into the Navy in October 1898. The ship was armed with a battery of two 21 cm guns and eight 15 cm guns and had a top speed of 19 knots.
SMS Vineta was a protected cruiser of the Victoria Louise class, built for the German Imperial Navy in the 1890s. Vineta was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in 1895, launched in April 1897, and commissioned into the Navy in July 1898. The ship, named for the semi-legendary medieval town of Vineta, was armed with a battery of two 21 cm guns and eight 15 cm guns and had a top speed of 19 knots.
The Brummer class consisted of two light mine-laying cruisers built for the Imperial German Navy in World War I: SMS Brummer and SMS Bremse. When the war broke out, the Germans had only two older mine-laying cruisers. Although most German cruisers were fitted for mine-laying, a need for fast specialized ships existed. The Imperial Russian Navy had ordered sets of steam turbines for the first two ships of the Svetlana-class cruisers from the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin. This machinery was confiscated on the outbreak of war and used for these ships. Both vessels were built by AG Vulcan.
The Königsberg class was a group of four light cruisers built for the German Imperial Navy. The class comprised four vessels: SMS Königsberg, the lead ship, SMS Nürnberg, SMS Stuttgart, and SMS Stettin. The ships were an improvement on the preceding Bremen class, being slightly larger and faster, and mounting the same armament of ten 10.5 cm SK L/40 guns and two 45 cm (17.7 in) torpedo tubes.
The Ersatz Yorck class was a group of three battlecruisers ordered but not completed for the German Kaiserliche Marine in 1916. The three ships had originally been ordered as additions to the Mackensen class, but developments abroad, particularly the British Renown-class battlecruisers, led to the navy re-designing the ships. The primary change was an increase of the main battery from eight 35-centimeter (14 in) guns to eight 38 cm (15 in) weapons. Work on the first ship had already begun by the time the navy decided to re-design the ships, so the design staff was constrained by the need to use the material already assembled.
SMS Kaiserin Augusta was a unique protected cruiser, built for the German Kaiserliche Marine in the early 1890s. Named for Empress Augusta, who died in January 1890, she was laid down in 1890, launched in January 1892, and completed in November of that year. Owing to budgetary restrictions, Kaiserin Augusta was designed to fill both fleet scout and colonial cruiser roles. The ship was initially armed with a main battery of four 15 cm (5.9 in) and eight 10.5 cm (4.1 in) guns, which by 1896 was replaced with twelve new model 15 cm guns. She was the first ship in the German Navy to feature a three-shaft propeller arrangement.
The Gazelle class was a group of ten light cruisers built for the Imperial German Navy at the turn of the 20th century. They were the first modern light cruiser design of the Imperial Navy, and set the basic pattern for all future light cruisers in Imperial service. The design of the Gazelle class attempted to merge the fleet scout with the colonial cruiser. They were armed with a main battery of ten 10.5 cm (4.1 in) guns and a pair of torpedo tubes, and were capable of a speed of 21.5 knots.
The Bremen class was a group of seven light cruisers built for the Imperial German Navy in the early 1900s. The seven ships, Bremen, Hamburg, Berlin, Lübeck, München, Leipzig, and Danzig, were an improvement upon the previous Gazelle class. They were significantly larger than the earlier class, and were faster and better armored. Like the Gazelles, they were armed with a main battery of ten 10.5 cm SK L/40 guns and a pair of torpedo tubes.
SMS Gefion was an unprotected cruiser of the German Kaiserliche Marine, the last ship of the type built in Germany. She was laid down in March 1892, launched in March 1893, and completed in June 1895 after lengthy trials and repairs. The cruiser was named after the earlier sail frigate Gefion, which had been named for the goddess Gefjon of Norse mythology. Intended for service in the German colonial empire and as a fleet scout, Gefion was armed with a main battery of ten 10.5-centimeter (4.1 in) guns, had a top speed in excess of 19.5 knots, and could steam for 3,500 nautical miles, the longest range of any German warship at the time. Nevertheless, the conflicting requirements necessary for a fleet scout and an overseas cruiser produced an unsuccessful design, and Gefion was rapidly replaced in both roles by the newer Gazelle class of light cruisers.
The Irene class was a class of protected cruisers built by the Imperial German Navy in the late 1880s. The class comprised two ships, Irene and Prinzess Wilhelm; they were the first protected cruisers built by the German Navy. As built, the ships were armed with a main battery of fourteen 15 cm (5.9 in) guns and had a top speed of 18 knots. They were modernized in 1899–1905, and their armament was upgraded with new, quick-firing guns.
SMS Luchs was the fourth member of the Iltis class of gunboats built for the German Kaiserliche Marine in the late 1890s and early 1900s. Other ships of the class are SMS Iltis, SMS Tiger, SMS Eber, SMS Jaguar and SMS Panther.
SMS Württemberg was the fourth and final member of the Bayern-class dreadnought battleships ordered but never finished for the German Kaiserliche Marine in the 1910s, sometimes considered to be part of a sub-class with her sister Sachsen. She was to be armed with the same main battery of eight 38 cm (15 in) guns in four gun turrets. Originally intended to serve as a fleet flagship, the start of World War I in July 1914 forced the Navy to simplify her design in the hopes that she could be completed in time to see service during the conflict. She was laid down in January 1915 at the AG Vulcan shipyard, but as resources were diverted to more pressing projects, including U-boat construction, work on the ship slowed; she was launched in June 1917, but only to clear the slipway for other work. By the time construction stopped, she was about twelve months from completion. The Treaty of Versailles that ended the war in June 1919 specified that all warships under construction in Germany were to be destroyed, and Württemberg was accordingly sold for scrap in 1921 and dismantled the following year.
Friedman, Norman (2011). Naval Weapons of World War One: Guns, Torpedoes, Mines and ASW Weapons of All Nations; An Illustrated Directory. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN978-1-84832-100-7.
Gröner, Erich (1990). German Warships: 1815–1945. Vol.I: Major Surface Vessels. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN978-0-87021-790-6.
"Naval Notes". R.U.S.I. Journal. London: Royal United Services Institute for Defence Studies. XLV: 190–207. 1901.
"Naval Notes". R.U.S.I. Journal. London: Royal United Services Institute for Defence Studies. XLIV (268): 684–699. 1900. doi:10.1080/03071840009420016.
Nottelmann, Dirk (2023). Wright, Christopher C. (ed.). "From "Wooden Walls" to "New-Testament Ships": The Development of the German Armored Cruiser 1854–1918, Part III: "Armor—Light Version"". Warship International. LX (2): 118–156. ISSN0043-0374.
Nottelmann, Dirk (2023). Wright, Christopher C. (ed.). "From "Wooden Walls" to "New-Testament Ships": The Development of the German Armored Cruiser 1854–1918, Part IIIb: "Armor—Light Version"". Warship International. LX (3): 184–228. ISSN0043-0374.
Perry, Michael (2001). Peking 1900: the Boxer Rebellion. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN978-1-84176-181-7.
Willmott, H. P. (2009). The Last Century of Sea Power (Volume 1, From Port Arthur to Chanak, 1894–1922). Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN978-0-253-35214-9.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
Imperial German Navy 
