Wood has been used since the earliest days of European printing for woodcut decorations and emblems, but it was not generally used for making typefaces due to the difficulty of reproducing the same shape many times for printing. In the 1820s, Darius Wells introduced mechanised wood type production using the powered router, and William Leavenworth in 1834 added a second major innovation of using a pantograph to cut a letter's shape from a pattern. This made it possible to mass-produce the same design in wood repeatedly.[2][3][4][5][6] Wood type was manufactured and used worldwide in the nineteenth century for display use.[5]
Exhibition poster by Alan Kitching, who often uses wood type in his work
Along with clay movable type, wooden movable type was invented in China by Bi Sheng in 1040s CE/AD, although he found clay type more satisfactory, and it was first formally used to print by Wang Zhen.[12][13] Wood type was hand-carved to make individual types for the very large character set of Chinese.[12][14] Clay type and metal type were also used in printing in China.[15] The problem with wood and clay types was that they could not be made to accurate dimensions, leading to metal type being adopted from the late fifteenth century.[14][12] Manufacturing, selecting and redistributing sorts for a large character set was cumbersome, and much printing in China continued to be made from custom-cut woodblocks of entire pages of text, rather than from movable type.[12]
In Europe, woodblock printing precedes European movable type printing, and the block book appeared in Europe around the same time as letterpress printing.[16] However, a major disadvantage of woodcut lettering is that once made by wood engraving, it could not be easily duplicated by casting, whereas metal casting could be used to quickly create many metal copies of the same letter, and with the smaller character set of European languages it was practical to cast type for every letter needed. European printing from the beginning used cast metal type.[17][lower-alpha 1]
Large display type, cut by Hendrik van den Keere in wood and reproduced by sandcasting
In European printed books, wood engraving was used for both decorations and for large lettering, like titles.[22] With care, it was possible to duplicate woodblocks by casting in sand, a technique known to have been used by Hendrik van den Keere to create his large types.[19] According to John A. Lane "the duplication of woodblocks by sandcasting is documented in 1575, probably goes back further, and... duplicated decorated initials became common in the Netherlands around 1615."[23]
Large sandcast metal types for printed posters became popular in London around the mid-eighteenth century. James Mosley comments that "there is evidence that English typefounders only began to make big letters for posters and other commercial printing towards 1770, when Thomas Cottrell made his 'Proscription or Posting letter of great bulk and dimension' and William Caslon II cast his 'Patagonian' or 'Proscription letters'"[24] and that "there is probably a prehistory of wood types in big letters cut by hand, especially among provincial printers, but there is no evidence that wood letter was widely used until machine-cut types were introduced."[25]
In the early nineteenth century, London became a centre of development in bold display typefaces, the arrival of the printed poster spurring demand for bold new types of letter like the fat face and later the slab serif. However, these types were initially made in metal.[26] In 1810, William Caslon IV introduced "sanspareil" matrices, made like a stencil by cutting out the letter in sheet metal and riveting it to a backing plate. This produced much sharper type than sandcasting and was easier to use; it was quickly copied.[27] The large metal types produced were cast with hollows in them to reduce the weight.[28][29] Mosley and Justin Howes have documented some cases in the early nineteenth century where woodblock lettering was used shortly before metal type became available in the same styles; heavy roman types on lottery advertising before the arrival of fat face types,[26] and later a slab serif woodblock a few years before the first known printing type.[29]
Metal display type preceded mass-produced wood type, but these large, heavy metal types were only briefly popular. Austin Foundry specimen, 1838. A very similar design was issued in the 1841 specimen of George F. Nesbitt, as chromatic multi-layer wood type.
At the start of the nineteenth century, complex decorated types and ornaments were cut in wood and metal and multiplied by methods including stereotyping and "dabbing", in which a woodcut was struck into molten metal on the verge of solidifying to form a mould.[31][32][33][34][35][36] One type foundry particularly known for decorated designs was the London foundry of Louis John Pouchée, active by 1818 to 1830;[37][35] many of the foundry's wooden patterns are preserved.[36][38][39][lower-alpha 2] Modern printing historians Giles Bergel and Paul Nash have experimented with the technique; Bergel reports that "perhaps the most counter-intuitive feature of the process is the fact that wooden blocks can survive direct contact with molten metal. Apart from some scorching around the edges and some cracking (perhaps made when prising them loose rather than from the heat) the blocks were undamaged and could be dabbed over and over again."[40]
Machine-cut wood type
Pantograph used for scaling a picture. In wood type manufacture a cutting tool would be moved around the letter rather than a pen.
Modern wood type, mass-produced by machine cutting rather than hand-carved, was invented by Darius Wells (1800–1875), who published his first known catalogue in New York City in 1828.[1][42][43][44][45] He introduced the lateral router to cut out wood type more quickly than handcarving.[1][46][47]
William Leavenworth in 1834 introduced the pantograph, allowing the same form to be reproduced from a pattern, and manufactured wood type in Allentown, New Jersey.[48][49][50] A pantograph has remained a standard way of making wood type, although several other methods have been used such as die-cutting[51] and making the letter as a thin sheet glued to a backing material.[1][42][52]
Some pages from Leavenworth's only surviving specimen, now in the New York Public Library, are shown below.[49]
In the mid-nineteenth century there were numerous wood type manufacturers in the United States. All the significant manufacturers were based in the Northeast and Midwest, many around New York City and in Connecticut.[56] The market for wood type was apparently limited and most businesses had side-lines as dealers in other printers' equipment, or making other wooden goods.[57] One of the larger firms until the 1880s was the company of William H. Page, near Norwich, Connecticut. Wood type competed with lithography and stencils in the market for display typography.[58][59][60]
Common type styles included the slab serif, fat face, sans-serif, reverse-contrast or "French Clarendon",[61] and other genres such as "Tuscan" (spikes on the letter), "Grecian" (chamfered)[62] and ornamented forms.[63][64] (The use of fictitious adjective names for newly invented type styles was common with wood type manufacturers but not invented by them, for example in London Vincent Figgins had called his first slab-serif "Antique" around 1817 and the Caslon foundry's first reverse contrast typeface around 1821 was given the probably fictitious name "Italian".[2][65]) Types were made in extreme proportions, such as ultra-bold and ultra-condensed.[66][67] For Bethany Heck, "wood type in the US was pioneered by mad scientists who strained good taste and legibility in an attempt to cover the broadest range of ornament, width and weight".[6] "Chromatic" types were also made for printing colour separation, showing the delicacy that could be achieved.[68]
Ornamented types, 1859 specimen, Wm. H. Page and Co.
Chromatic colour separation Pointed and Tuscan wood type, Wm. H. Page & Co., 1874 specimen[69]
Wood type had distinctive characteristics compared to metal type. The demand for novelty led to an arms race of new styles of novelty type designs, and because each type was individually cut by pantograph from a pattern, types could be offered in a wide range of sizes.[70] Wood type styles were sold in a wide range of widths from condensed to ultra-wide, and Hamilton offered to supply at regular prices any width desired in between its standard widths.[71] Robert James DeLittle, the last owner of the DeLittle wood type cutters in York, England, explained in 2000 that sometimes very condensed letters were needed for theatre posters because "If you were more important than the other chap, your name had to be in larger letters. If you were unfortunate enough to have a long-winded name you had great difficulty in fitting it into those narrow theatrical bills."[72][67] As noted above, multiple types were often made for the multiple layers of a design to be printed using colour separation.[69] As wood type was made for large sizes, it was often made with very narrow sidebearings between letters, so spacing material had to be inserted to achieve the desired spacing between characters.[73] Digital typeface designer Anatole Couteau comments: "in wood type...due to how the wooden blocks are cut, spacing is typically so tight that you constantly have to do kerning."[74][75]
Nineteenth-century Didone text types (metal type example shown) tended to use a modularised design with capitals of similar width, something copied by display types of the period.
Although apparently diverse in appearance, nineteenth century wood types tended to be ornamented variations on the same basic modularised design principles, similar to nineteenth century Didone text typefaces.[76] Nineteenth-century types were based on a system of keeping the capitals very similar in width, seen for example in the "tucked-under" leg of the R.[77][78][lower-alpha 4] This model was quite different from Roman square capitals, where the capitals are quite different in width.[79]
Wood type manufacture was particularly common in the United States, and its companies made type in other languages for export. By the 1870s, missionaries working in China had commissioned type for printing posters, and wood type was also made for Russian and Burmese for export.[80] Besides this, American manufacturers made German blackletter, Greek and Hebrew types catering to the large immigrant communities.[80][81][82]
In 1880, J. E. Hamilton founded the Hamilton Manufacturing Company in Two Rivers, Wisconsin. His company grew rapidly to take over the American industry. Hamilton gained its initial advantage by introducing a new method of making wood type very cheaply: the wood letter was cut out and then attached to a backing of a block of cheaper wood.[83] Around 1890, Hamilton switched to the standard router method of cutting wood type as a single block.[83] It also benefited from an effective distribution network and proximity to the growing western market.[84][85] From 1887 to 1909 it took over most of its competitors.[1][86][87] It continued to make wood type until 1985.[84] The surviving materials from the company are now preserved at the Hamilton Wood Type and Printing Museum, also in Two Rivers.[1][88][87][89]
Some types from Hamilton are shown below:
Blackletter type
Slab serif
Condensed sans-serif
Slab serif with curving terminals
"French Clarendon" (reverse-contrast)
"Streamer" chromatic type, with type in front of a banner
According to S. L. Righyni, in the late inter-war period in Britain, the standard letterform on newsbills posted by newsagents was "the sans-serif wooden letter-form", especially bold condensed sans-serifs from Stephenson Blake, although the Daily Express used Winchester Bold and The Times had a custom design similar to Kabel Bold Condensed.[90] (Although wood type was used for news bills and posters, large newspaper headlines were rare in British newspaper printing until well into the twentieth century.[91])
Johnston wood type, the corporate typeface of the London Underground system, with a humanist sans-serif design different to nineteenth-century grotesque wood types. The wood type is locked in a chase used for printing with spacing materials
HWT American Chromatic, a digital font published by the Hamilton Wood Type museum with P22 based on its collectionWood type posters printed by Tribune Showprint, Indiana, pictured in 2008French Clarendon wood type at the Hamilton Wood Type and Printing Museum
During the post-war period, wood type poster printing was displaced by new technologies like offset lithography and phototypesetting. Reproductions of wood type with their resonance of times past were offered by phototypesetting companies such as Photo-Lettering Inc. and Haber Typographers, and used in the 1960s by designers such as Bob Cato and John Berg,[108] and later Paula Scher and Louise Fili.[109][110] Wood type has remained in use longer in India, where as of 2024 it continued to be used for printing shopping bags.[111] Artistic printers like Jack Stauffacher and retro print shops such as Hatch Show Print carried on using wood type, finding that it was a cheap way to achieve creative effects.[112][113][114] (For wood type historian Rob Roy Kelly, the aesthetic quality of wood type manufacturers declined in the twentieth century; Nick Sherman and Frode Helland have commented on a staggeringly bad rendition of Futura in Hamilton's 1951 specimen that features inconsistent stroke weights, the dot on the i and j at different heights, and the 8 in the specimen printed upside down.[115][116][117][118])[lower-alpha 5]
The use of wood type styles is commonly associated with the American Frontier or "Wild West". These typefaces are seen as classic western Americana. This is because of its cinematic and decorative appearance: wood type style-lettering was very popular in Westerns giving it an association with the American west, and are used frequently to depict that aesthetic, from theme parks to bars.[120][121]
In the 1950s, Rob Roy Kelly, an American graphic design teacher, became interested in the history of wood type and built up a large collection from sources like old print shops and printers' families.[103][122] He published a history of the industry, American Wood Type, 1828–1900 in 1969.[123][124][125] His collection, now at the University of Texas at Austin,[126] has been studied by other historians of wood type such as David Shields.[127][128][129][130][131]
Digital fonts
Many digital fonts based on wood type display faces have been published, benefiting from the plentiful source material and accessibility of images, for example Kelly's book.[6][109] For example, when Adobe were developing a line of original typefaces in the early 1990s they created a large number of digital fonts based on wood types using proofs supplied by Kelly, which were named after types of tree.[132][133]
Notes
↑ There is minimal surviving evidence of the first printing methods, but the opinion of historians such as Talbot Baines Reed, Alfred F. Johnson, Harry Carter and James Mosley is that the earliest printing methods were very similar to those used in metal type until mechanisation in the nineteenth century, using punches, matrices and moulds to make and cast metal type.[17] It has been suggested sometimes by historians such as Paul Needham that in early printing other methods were used such as casting stereotype plates in plaster, which has itself been disputed by James Mosley who has suggested an alternative explanation of type being bound together with wire; in any case it is certain that no alternative method lasted long in use, and that in European printing from metal type was the norm.[18]
↑ Some websites have assumed that Pouchée engraved these faces himself. This is unlikely to be correct as he was not an engraver but a businessman, he was the owner of a restaurant and then a coal merchant before he became a typefounder. The blocks do not have any engravers' names on them; Mosley assumes that they are the work of multiple engravers based on the mixture of styles and notes that a few similar hand-carved wooden types have come to light in England from other sources.[35]
↑ This type has been digitised by Barbara Lind for Adobe Systems as Poplar.[53]
↑ In Tubbs' Uniform Set Gothic type, a full specimen of which is not known to survive, an advert seems to claim that all the capital letters had the same width apart from I and M and W (the latter two themselves the same width), although it did claim that its manufacturing methods were unique.[71]
↑ Not a unique criticism: Eva Silvertant comments of the H. M. Sellers 1965 specimen that "some wood-type faces look like they're cut from memory...[it] isn't ‘quite' Gill Sans Bold."[119]
Related Research Articles
In typography and lettering, a sans-serif, sans serif, gothic, or simply sans letterform is one that does not have extending features called "serifs" at the end of strokes. Sans-serif typefaces tend to have less stroke width variation than serif typefaces. They are often used to convey simplicity and modernity or minimalism. For the purposes of type classification, sans-serif designs are usually divided into these major groups: § Grotesque, § Neo-grotesque, § Geometric, § Humanist, and § Other or mixed.
In typography, a serif is a small line or stroke regularly attached to the end of a larger stroke in a letter or symbol within a particular font or family of fonts. A typeface or "font family" making use of serifs is called a serif typeface, and a typeface that does not include them is sans-serif. Some typography sources refer to sans-serif typefaces as "grotesque" or "Gothic" and serif typefaces as "roman".
A typeface is a design of letters, numbers and other symbols, to be used in printing or for electronic display. Most typefaces include variations in size, weight, slope, width, and so on. Each of these variations of the typeface is a font.
Gill Sans is a humanist sans-serif typeface designed by Eric Gill and released by the British branch of Monotype from 1928 onwards.
Monotype Imaging Holdings Inc., founded as Lanston Monotype Machine Company in 1887 in Philadelphia by Tolbert Lanston, is an American company that specializes in digital typesetting and typeface design for use with consumer electronics devices. Based in Woburn, Massachusetts, the company has been responsible for many developments in printing technology—in particular the Monotype machine, which was a fully mechanical hot metal typesetter, that produced texts automatically, all single type. Monotype was involved in the design and production of many typefaces in the 20th century. Monotype developed many of the most widely used typeface designs, including Times New Roman, Gill Sans, Arial, Bembo and Albertus.
Caslon is the name given to serif typefaces designed by William Caslon I in London, or inspired by his work.
Oblique type is a form of type that slants slightly to the right, used for the same purposes as italic type. Unlike italic type, however, it does not use different glyph shapes; it uses the same glyphs as roman type, except slanted. Oblique and italic type are technical terms to distinguish between the two ways of creating slanted font styles; oblique designs may be labelled italic by companies selling fonts or by computer programs. Oblique designs may also be called slanted or sloped roman styles. Oblique fonts, as supplied by a font designer, may be simply slanted, but this is often not the case: many have slight corrections made to them to give curves more consistent widths, so they retain the proportions of counters and the thick-and-thin quality of strokes from the regular design.
In typography, a slab serif typeface is a type of serif typeface characterized by thick, block-like serifs. Serif terminals may be either blunt and angular (Rockwell), or rounded (Courier). Slab serifs were introduced in the early nineteenth century.
Didone is a genre of serif typeface that emerged in the late 18th century and was the standard style of general-purpose printing during the 19th century. It is characterized by:
Clarendon is the name of a slab serif typeface that was released in 1845 by Thorowgood and Co. of London, a letter foundry often known as the Fann Street Foundry. The original Clarendon design is credited to Robert Besley, a partner in the foundry, and was originally engraved by punchcutter Benjamin Fox, who may also have contributed to its design. Many copies, adaptations and revivals have been released, becoming almost an entire genre of type design.
Bell is the name given to a serif typeface designed and cut in 1788 by the punchcutter Richard Austin for the British Letter Foundry, operated by publisher John Bell, and revived several times since.
Vincent Figgins was a British typefounder based in London, who cast and sold metal type for printing. After an apprenticeship with typefounder Joseph Jackson, he established his own type foundry in 1792. His company was extremely successful and, with its range of modern serif faces and display typefaces, had a strong influence on the styles of British printing in the nineteenth century. A successor company continued to make type until the 1970s.
Memphis is a slab-serif typeface designed by Rudolf Wolf and released in 1929 by the Stempel Type Foundry.
Karnak is a slab-serif typeface designed by R. Hunter Middleton for the Ludlow Typograph company and issued in the period 1931–1942.
Beton is a slab-serif typeface designed by Heinrich Jost and released originally by the Bauer Type Foundry from 1929 onwards, with most major styles released by 1931. "Beton" is German for concrete, a choice of name suggesting its industrial aesthetic.
A reverse-contrast or reverse-stress letterform is a typeface or custom lettering where the stress is reversed from the norm, meaning that the horizontal lines are the thickest. This is the reverse of the vertical lines being the same width or thicker than horizontals, which is normal in Latin-alphabet writing and especially printing. The result is a dramatic effect, in which the letters seem to have been printed the wrong way round. The style was invented in the early nineteenth century as an attention-grabbing novelty for display typefaces. Modern font designer Peter Biľak, who has created a design in the genre, has described them as "a dirty trick to create freakish letterforms that stood out."
A display typeface is a typeface that is intended for use in display type at large sizes for titles, headings, pull quotes, and other eye-catching elements, rather than for extended passages of body text.
Egyptian is a typeface created by the Caslon foundry of Salisbury Square, London around or probably slightly before 1816, that is the first general-purpose sans-serif typeface in the Latin alphabet known to have been created.
In typography, a fat face letterform is a serif typeface or piece of lettering in the Didone or modern style with an extremely bold design. Fat face typefaces appeared in London around 1805–1810 and became widely popular; John Lewis describes the fat face as "the first real display typeface."
The Caslon type foundry was a type foundry in London which cast and sold metal type. It was founded by the punchcutter and typefounder William Caslon I, probably in 1720. For most of its history it was based at Chiswell Street, Islington, was the oldest type foundry in London, and the most prestigious.
1 2 Shields, David (2008). "A Short History of the Italian". Ultrabold: The Journal of St Bride Library (4): 22–27. Archived from the original on 19 November 2021. Retrieved 23 December 2021.
1 2 3 Heck, Bethany (25 August 2018). "Champion Gothic". Font Review Journal. Archived from the original on 16 August 2019. Retrieved 13 September 2019.
↑ Vervliet, Hendrik D. L. (2008). The palaeotypography of the French Renaissance: selected papers on sixteenth-century typefaces. Leiden: Brill. p.240. ISBN9789004169821.
↑ Lane, John A. (27 June 2013). "The Printing Office of Gerrit Harmansz van Riemsdijck, Israël Abrahamsz de Paull, Abraham Olofsz, Andries Pietersz, Jan Claesz Groenewoudt & Elizabeth Abrahams Wiaer c.1660–1709". Quaerendo. 43 (4): 311–439. doi:10.1163/15700690-12341283.
↑ Lupton, Ellen (15 April 2014). Thinking with Type. Chronicle Books. p.23. ISBN9781616890452. although Bodoni and Didot fuelled their designs with the calligraphic practices of their time, they created new forms that collided with typographic tradition and unleashed a strange new world, where the structural attributes of the letter-serif and stem, thick and thin strokes, vertical and horizontal stress-would be subject to bizarre experiments...Fonts of astonishing height, width and depth appeared: expanded, contracted, shadowed, inlined, fattened, faceted and floriated. Serifs abandoned their role as finishing details to become independent architectural structures, and the vertical stress of traditional letters canted in new directions.
↑ "Coign". Colophon Foundry. Retrieved 19 November 2022. Coign is an extensive study of condensed forms based on the DeLittle type foundry's Elongated Sans. DeLittle's type — extending far beyond the realms of legibility — challenges conventional letterforms, pushing the notion of what is 'condensed' to the absolute limit.
↑ Wälchli, Tan. "Emil Ruder: A Tool for Teaching". Lineto. Retrieved 28 October 2022. Couteau: 'My teacher at École Estienne in Paris, Franck Jalleau, liked to provoke people by saying that kerning is only necessary for poorly spaced fonts. But in wood type, this is entirely different. Due to how the wooden blocks are cut, spacing is typically so tight that you constantly have to do kerning.' Strips of type metal in various widths were inserted between each pair of letters on press. This was feasible in the days of wood type, when often only a couple of dozen letters were used.
↑ Johnston, Edward. Writing, Illuminating and Lettering. p.233. [In the] nineteenth-century style...it was customary to make every letter occupy the same space and look as much like its neighbour as possible.
↑ Bolton, Claire (1988). DeLittle, 1888–1988: the first years in a century of wood letter manufacture, 1888–1895. Alembic Press. ISBN9780907482291. Wood type was first made in the United States in 1828 and by the mid-1840s was being used in Britain...the first British firms began cutting wood type during the 1860s. DeLittle entered the field comparatively late but his idea was to specialise [in] 'white-letter' wood type.
↑ Coles, Stephen (21 December 2015). "Bob Dylan – The Times They Are A-changin' album art". Fonts In Use. Archived from the original on 21 September 2021. Retrieved 28 June 2022. Haber...provided phototype versions of Morgan wood type, including Nesbitt's Gothic, for much of the New York design scene
↑ Scher, Paula (2020). Twenty-Five Years at the Public. Princeton Architectural Press. pp.39–42. ISBN9781616899349. When I left CBS Records, I had asked Haber Typographers for large-scale prints of the complete alphabets, numbers and punctuation for all of the wood fonts from the foundry. All through the '80s, I repeatedly xeroxed the fonts and used them on book covers and in magazines.
↑ Simonson, Mark (18 August 2022). "Introducing HWT Konop". Mark Simonson Studio. a modern letterpress printer...tends to be more interested in self-expression and artistic effects
↑ Helland, Frode. "The best Futura". Twitter. Monokrom Schriftvorlag. Archived from the original on 15 August 2022. Retrieved 7 August 2022.
↑ Sherman, Nick (2012). "The Design of Type Specimens". The Shelf. Archived from the original on 8 August 2022. Retrieved 8 August 2022. A seemingly random mishmash of characters were used to present an already-wonky cut of Futura in Hamilton Manufacturing Company's wood type catalog #25, 1951.
↑ Sherman, Nick (28 November 2022). "Franklin Gothic Goes on Forever with Nick Sherman". YouTube. Cooper Union. Retrieved 30 November 2022. [At 34:26] It's so bad...if you look at a lot of their mid-twentieth century adaptations of popular typefaces for wood...the curves just look like they were cut with a hacksaw.
Mosley, James (1993). Ornamented types: twenty-three alphabets from the foundry of Louis John Poucheé. I.M. Imprimit in association with the St. Bride Printing Library.
Mosley, James (2001). "Memories of an Apprentice Typefounder". Matrix. 21: 1–13.
Mosley, James (2003). "Sanspareil Matrices". Matrix. 23: 104–114.
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Condensed Gothic (sans-serif) [lower-alpha 3]
Gothic (sans-serif) and chamfered Gothic types
"Italian" (reverse contrast, see below)
