Aguateca

Last updated • 14 min readFrom Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia
Aguateca
Aguateca-plaza.jpg
The main plaza of Aguateca showing a large stone stela
Relief map of Guatemala.jpg
Archaeological site icon (red).svg
Shown within Guatemala
Region Petén Department,  Guatemala
Plan of Aguateca viewing to the north. The site of Aguateca is built in between the Main Chasm on the west and the steep escarpments on the east Maqueta Aguateca.jpg
Plan of Aguateca viewing to the north. The site of Aguateca is built in between the Main Chasm on the west and the steep escarpments on the east
Palacio Real Aguateca-temple.jpg
Palacio Real
View from Palacio in Plaza 2 de Aguateca Aguateca.jpg
View from Palacio in Plaza 2 de Aguateca

Aguateca is a Maya site located in northern Guatemala's Petexbatun Basin, in the department of Petén. The first settlements at Aguateca date to the Late Preclassic period (300 BC - AD 350). The center was occupied from about 200 B.C. until about 800 A.D., when the city was attacked and ransacked. Because the city was rapidly abandoned by its population, Pompeii-style assemblages were left scattered on the floors of elite residences. Horizontal excavation of these residences has revealed ancient elite activity and household level craft production areas. [1] Aguateca sits on top of a 90 metres (300 ft) tall limestone bluff, creating a highly defensible position. This steep escarpment overlooks Petexbatun Lagoon in the Southwestern Guatemalan lowlands and is accessible by boat. [2] There is an extensive system of defensive walls that surrounds the city, reaching over 3 miles (4.8 km) in length. [3] Its center consisted on the Palace Group, which was probably a royal residential compound, and the Main Plaza. These monumental complexes were connected by a causeway, along which was a densely occupied elite residential area. During the reign of Tan Te' K'inich the city was invaded and burned. The city was completely abandoned around 830 AD. A 6-metre (20 ft) tall temple at the site was left unfinished, the centre of the city was destroyed by fire, valuables were left scattered in elite residences, and ceramics were left in their original domestic positions, all of which demonstrate the sudden abandonment of the city. [2] [4] The ruins of Aguateca are considered to be among the best preserved in Guatemala. [5]

Contents

Early development

Aguateca and the nearby city of Dos Pilas were the twin capitals of a powerful dynasty claiming descent from the rulers of Tikal. [6] Around 700 AD, it appears that Dos Pilas Rulers 3 and 4 were responsible for shifting the focus of the dynasty from Dos Pilas to Aguateca, as can be determined from stelas and monuments. [7] In 761 AD, the rulers of Dos Pilas appear to have abandoned their city and relocated to Aguateca. Aguateca became a large, densely populated city, with a higher density of structures than most other lowland Maya sites. It is possible that the population of Aguateca migrated from the Pasion region, but it is likely there was a large population from other regions as well. The influx of people was probably a result of the political influence of the dynasty. The development of a new center requires a substantial labor force to construct temples, palaces, and causeways. For the royal family and elites securing a controllable population was essential. [8] [9] [10]

Structures and society

The structural complexes of this ancient Mayan site have provided archaeologists with invaluable information about the societal composition at Aguateca. This includes the significance and role of different social classes, their placement in society, and their daily routines. In addition to this, households, as the most basic socioeconomic units, interacted dynamically with larger social, economic, and political institutions. The examination of these aspects at Aguateca is critical for understanding various aspects of human societies and behavior. [2]

Elite households and lifestyle

In most traditional societies, like Aguateca, what we call private and public merge inseparably, in contrast to modern societies, in which the division between "home" and "work" is relatively common. [2] Houses in the elite residential area of Aguateca commonly consist of three main rooms and smaller additions. These included numerous domestic objects including serving vessels, grinding stones, and a variety of stone tools. Obsidian blades, probably used for bloodletting, were also found, as well as stone mortars for pigment reparation. The central rooms appear to have served as locations to receive visitors, perform scribe work, and store ritual objects as well as food. The presence of mano and metate in one of the main rooms of these complexes also indicates that food preparation took place here. In addition, excavators found seven bone needles and seven spindle whorls in one of the rooms. This suggests that textile production occurred in or in front of this room, most likely a task undertaken by women. The residents of an elite structure clearly conducted a wide range of mundane activities, including the storage, preparation, and consumption of food. As noted, these residences were also spaces for political gatherings and artistic production. A male resident may have used the central room for meetings and one of the side rooms for scribal and artistic work, whereas the other room was most likely associated with the female. [2] Each residence was multi-purposeful, and there have been no structures found that were solely dedicated to food storage within the elite residential groups or the royal palace. This indicates that food storage was not centralized or controlled. Because of this, differences in food storage capacity and food processing may reflect differences in household size or even differences in economic status and access to sources. [11] An elite Maya man could have conducted various activities, such as stone knapping, carving wood, shell, or bone, as well as administrative, diplomatic, and ritual duties in and outside the residence. An elite Maya woman may have engaged in different kinds of artistic creation and craft production, in addition to other domestic activities. Classic elite men and women possessed multiple social identities and roles. [12]

Main plaza and performance

The Classic Maya strongly emphasized the theatrical performance and visibility of rulers. The large plaza at Aguateca, like other Classic Maya centers, was designed to accommodate a large number of individuals. These plazas held the majority of the community members on ceremonial occasions. Residents made a significant effort to secure spaces for mass spectacles by creating plazas outside of core areas and constructing large causeways. Prominent representations of rulers on stone monuments were also placed in plazas. Theatrical events probably held together a Maya community around the ruler and royal court. The presence of plazas of varying sizes suggests that theatrical events also divided the community, separating those who were allowed to participate in exclusive performance from the less privileged. [13]

Palace group and the royal family

The overall site layout, architectural configurations, storage of objects, and post-abandonment treatment all point to the unique qualities of the Palace Group as the royal palace complex. These buildings also served administrative functions with the central rooms used as settings for royal audience and other political meetings. The configuration of this royal palace complex suggests that the ruler maintained a certain level of visibility. For example, meetings held in one of the Palace Group structures were visible to those who were not allowed in. The prominence of meeting scenes in Maya ceramic paintings suggests that certain gatherings in royal palaces were meant to be witnessed. It appears that before the final attack on Aguateca took place, the royal family cleaned out the rooms of the palace and left the center. [14]

Temple construction and commoners

One structure that has been discovered has been identified as an unfinished temple. It is believed that it was still in the process of construction when it was attacked and abandoned at the beginning of the 9th century. Its discovery has provided valuable information on Maya building methods and processes, as well as the likelihood for specialization. It is possible that construction labour was organized into different groups, such as workers carrying rocks to the site, stone cutters quarrying blocks for dressed stone, masons or plaster workers setting stones with mortar, and stone sculptors carving monuments. All of these people worked side by side, and elite architects or supervisors most likely coordinated the tasks of various workers. [8] [15]

Material culture

Elite artisans

A significant portion of Maya elites, both men and women, engaged in artistic creation and craft production at Aguateca, and they were often involved in independent and attached production. Artistic and craft production appears to have been a common pursuit among classic Maya elites at Aguateca, including courtiers of the highest rank and even members of the royal family. They manufactured not only luxury goods and weaponry but also utilitarian items for consumption both within and outside the household. Items produced included wood carvings and hide or leather goods. Because of this, several kinds of craft production overlapped in various households. At the same time, particular households and individuals emphasized specific artistic creation and craft activities. One household might carve stelae for the ruler, while another might have an emphasis on shell and bone objects of high symbolic value. It is likely that elite women actively participated in these types of production, engaging in stone carving in collaboration with noble men. Artistic creation, as well as the garnering of ideological, religious, and esoteric production knowledge, were important in exclusionary tactics and elite identity. [12] [1] Some of these elite art pieces were found burned after the abandonment of Aguateca, with pieces representing what archaeologists call "The Jester God" being found in one of the elite residences, signifying the importance of art creation among the elite. [16]

Obsidian

Obsidian was a highly valued material in Classic Maya society, and possession of it was indicative of high status. The rulers of Aguateca controlled the main access to obsidian in the city while the procurement and distribution of obsidian may have been administered by the royal court of the Aguateca dynasty as part of its political economy. Both the rulers of Aguateca and the elite scribes/artists had a larger number of stronger and more substantial obsidian crafted blades than those who lived in smaller residences. The presence of obsidian also indicates that the Classic Maya at Aguateca were not isolated from other regions but participated in long distance trade to obtain the material. [17]

Animals

Production of goods from animal products for the community and rulers seems to have been common. All members of the community were involved in animal related craft production, but some aspects of this crafting were only carried out in specific households. Activities included meat/hide production and initial bone-tool production. [1] Some animals were used as luxury goods and foods, access to which was differentially available on the basis of social rank or authority. The upper class had greater access to animal sources that were considered to be more ritual or exotic. Such species included marine shells (for decoration) and wild cats such as jaguars, margays, and ocelots (used for pelts, teeth, and claws). Non-exotic animals were also differentially available as foods and tools. Dominant species for consumption at Aguateca include white-tailed deer, river turtles, dog, agouti, paca, peccaries, as well as large birds and riverine fish. [18]

Theatre

The Main Plaza of Aguateca contained numerous stone monuments and provided an adequate environment for theatrical performances. [17] Theatrical performances not only communicate pre-existing ideas but also define political reality as it is experienced by participants. Theatrical events constitute a critical process of integration and conflict and have particularly significant effects on the maintenance and transformation of societies. The performances of rulers, which is depicted on stone monuments, involved a large audience. This makes the Main Plaza at Aguateca highly significant because its use as a theatrical space was a primary concern in the design of the city. These events gave physical reality to the community and counteracted the tendencies of non-elite populations to move away from the center of the city. The elite may have taken advantage of these performances to advance their political agendas, but they were at the same time under constant evaluation by viewers. Theatrical events set the stage for creation and imposition of power relations and associated ideologies, as well as resistance to and subversion of them. [13]

Tools

In order to be able to produce the goods and materials that they did, the community of Aguateca had to create the tools they used for production. Some of these tools included manos and metates, tools utilized for grinding, with manos typically being used for the preparation of corn, and metates being used to grind other materials down into smaller quantities. [19] Some animal products were also used as tools, such as the bones of deer assisted in the manufacturing of lithic tools and burnishing. [19] The people of Aguateca were able to create these tools that they used to create many other of the artifacts found at the archaeological site, and provide answers as to how the production of materials and goods was organized and carried out in their society.

Main Chasm rituals

Two views into the long steep slope of the Main Chasm Aguateca falla microclima.jpg
Two views into the long steep slope of the Main Chasm

The Main Chasm is a naturally formed deep fracture of limestone karst running NE-SW through the middle of the Aguateca site. It measures approximately 850 m long, 10–70 m deep and 1,5 – 15 m wide. [20] Embodying the maya conception of mountain-cave, [21] it has strong evidence of a variety of ritual practices. This suggests that chasms, like caves, represent potent cosmological and religious places where ancestral and supernatural spirits can be reached. The features and natural phenomena observed at the Main Chasm at Aguateca provide a window into the complex manipulation of the transformative properties of the elements and their significance. At Aguateca, within the interiors of the earth where the wind blows clouds onto the hill from the depths of the chasm, wind instruments were played and fires were burned. It is possible these fires contained copal incense which would have formed black smoke reminiscent of rain clouds, with the hopes of bringing rain. Notably, two of the elements air (wind) and water (rain), are intricately linked according to Maya beliefs. Water, as an enduring element of life, was materialized in the form of rain ceremonies, layered with meanings that ranged from sufficient rainfall to dynastic prosperity and power. [22] The toponymic glyph of Aguateca represents the chasm. [23]

Farming

The subsistence environment at Aguateca, like at other Classic Maya sites, was limited by shallow, sloped soils and unpredictable weather patterns until their collapse. Based on changes in stable carbon isotope ratios of soil, we are able to determine the ancient presence of C4 plant growth and maize. The ancient Maya of Aguateca probably adapted to their environment by exploiting ideal areas for agriculture. As a result, it is likely that maize was grown in the seasonal wetlands adjacent to the site. Natural "rejollada" karst features, "toeslip" soils, and seasonally inundated wetlands were important soil resources to the ancient Maya because the soils there were deep and fertile. Stepped slopes of the rejolladas may have acted as natural terraces. This was also probably the site of frequent maize cultivation and may have been politically important. [24]

War and weapons

Both the royal family and elite scribes/artists at Aguateca used spear and dart points for "inter-group human conflict" as well as for artistic and craft production under enemy threat. The ruler and elite were also warriors, and owning these weapons and participating in warfare established and perpetuated their supremacy. Spear and dart points were more important than the bow and arrow, but notches in these points do indicate that the bow and arrow was in use. Inter-valley conflict may have been a crucial factor that lead to the development of Classic Maya complex societies such as Aguateca. This warfare had a fundamental effect on society, and is what ultimately led to the demise of Aguateca. [25]

Destruction and abandonment

Although inter-group conflict, climate changes, and environmental degradation began to cause social upheaval towards the end of the reign of Aguateca, the ultimate destruction of the center was a result of warfare. [7] [15] Around 800 A.D. Aguateca appears to have been attacked by enemies. A series of defensive walls that were hastily constructed towards the end of the Late Classic period were probably in response to the escalation of warfare in the region. The elite residential area near the royal palace was burned, and residents fled or were taken away, leaving most of their belongings behind. The attacking army did not stay in the center, and soon the entire city was abandoned. Elaborately built structures, such as the Palace Group, contained highly valuable goods, such as greenstone beads, carved alabaster, and shell ornamentation. This further supports the conclusion that the city was abandoned rapidly. Excavations at the Palace Group suggest that the royal family evacuated the center before the attack and anticipated to return, but it appears that members of the elite remained. Areas outside the center were abandoned gradually, probably right after the destruction of the city. The inhabitants of these areas carried away most of their belongings to their next residences. Because of the pattern of destruction and abandonment, it is likely that the ruling elite of Aguateca was the primary focus of battle. The enemies aimed to terminate Aguateca as a political and economic power and they succeeded. [26] The drastic fall of Aguateca is very similar to the situation in Pompeii, which provides us with a wealth of evidence today. Moments of classic Maya lives were frozen in the rich assemblages of objects left in burned structures. This provides information regarding domestic activities, household organization, and political interactions of the Classic Maya at Aguateca. [8] [2] [15] [27]

Known rulers

See also

Bibliography

  1. Emery, Kitty F.; Aoyama, Kazuo (2007). "Bone, shell, and lithic evidence for crafting in elite Maya households at Aguateca, Guatemala". Ancient Mesoamerica. 18 (1): 69–89. doi: 10.1017/S0956536107000089 . JSTOR   26309322. S2CID   163044977. ProQuest   196680392.
  2. Inomata, Takeshi; Triadan, Daniela; Ponciano, Erick; Pinto, Estela; Terry, Richard E.; Eberl, Markus (2002). "Domestic and Political Lives of Classic Maya Elites: The Excavation of Rapidly Abandoned Structures at Aguateca, Guatemala". Latin American Antiquity. 13 (3): 305–330. doi:10.2307/972113. JSTOR   972113. S2CID   155520148. Gale   A92448195.
  3. Martin & Grube 2000, p. 65
  4. Miller (1999), p. 35.
  5. Culbert, T. Patrick (1991). Classic Maya Political History: Hieroglyphic and Archaeological Evidence. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-0-521-39210-5.
  6. Lohse, Jon C.; Valdez, Fred (2010). Ancient Maya Commoners. University of Texas Press. ISBN   978-0-292-77814-6.
  7. Marcus, Joyce (1976). Emblem and State in the Classic Maya Lowlands: An Epigraphic Approach to Territorial Organization. Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN   978-0-88402-066-0.
  8. Nielsen, Axel E., and William H. Walker. Warfare in Cultural Context: Practice, Agency, and the Archaeology of Violence. Tucson: University of Arizona, 2009. Print.
  9. Inomata, Takeshi; Triadan, Daniela; Ponciano, Erick; Pinto, Estela; Terry, Richard E.; Eberl, Markus (2002). "Domestic and Political Lives of Classic Maya Elites: The Excavation of Rapidly Abandoned Structures at Aguateca, Guatemala". Latin American Antiquity. 13 (3): 305–330. doi:10.2307/972113. JSTOR   972113. S2CID   155520148. Gale   A92448195.
  10. Triadan, Daniela (2000). "Elite Household Subsistence at Aguateca, Guatemala". Mayab (13): 46–56.
  11. Aoyama, Kazuo (2007). "Elite Artists and Craft Producers in Classic Maya Society: Lithic Evidence from Aguateca, Guatemala". Latin American Antiquity. 18 (1): 3–26. doi: 10.2307/25063083 . JSTOR   25063083. S2CID   161149243. Gale   A162184238.
  12. Inomata, Takeshi (2006). "Plazas, Performers, and Spectators: Political Theaters of the Classic Maya". Current Anthropology. 47 (5): 805–842. doi:10.1086/506279. JSTOR   10.1086/506279. S2CID   150054455.
  13. Inomata, Takeshi; Triadan, Daniela; Ponciano, Erick; Terry, Richard; Beaubien, Harriet F. (January 2001). "In the Palace of the Fallen king: The Royal Residential Complex at Aguateca, Guatemala". Journal of Field Archaeology. 28 (3–4): 287–306. doi:10.1179/jfa.2001.28.3-4.287. JSTOR   3181436. S2CID   162187707.
  14. Inomata, Takeshi; Ponciano, Erick; Chinchilla, Oswaldo; Román, Otto; Breuil-Martínez, Véronique; Santos, Oscar (December 2004). "An unfinished temple at the Classic Maya centre of Aguateca, Guatemala". Antiquity. 78 (302): 798–811. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00113456. S2CID   163577976. Gale   A127538851.
  15. Aoyama, Kazuo (1 June 2006). "Political and socioeconomic implications of Classic Maya lithic artifacts from the Main Plaza of Aguateca, Guatemala". Journal de la société des américanistes. 92 (1–2): 7–40. doi: 10.4000/jsa.3078 . JSTOR   24606344.
  16. Emery, Kitty (January 2003). "The noble beast: status and differential access to animals in the Maya world". World Archaeology. 34 (3): 498–515. doi:10.1080/0043824021000026477. JSTOR   3560200. S2CID   143828798.
  17. Ishihara 2009, p. 1.
  18. Ishihara 2009, p. 367.
  19. Ishihara, Reiko (June 2008). "Rising clouds, blowing winds: Late Classic Maya rain rituals in the Main Chasm, Aguateca, Guatemala". World Archaeology. 40 (2): 169–189. doi:10.1080/00438240802030001. JSTOR   40388205. S2CID   154536421.
  20. Ishihara2009, p. 2.
  21. Johnson, Kristofer D.; Wright, David R.; Terry, Richard E. (March 2007). "Application of carbon isotope analysis to ancient maize agriculture in the Petexbatún region of Guatemala". Geoarchaeology. 22 (3): 313–336. doi:10.1002/gea.20155. S2CID   129265248.
  22. Aoyama, Kazuo (2005). "Classic Maya Warfare and Weapons; Spear, Dart, and Arrow Points of Aguateca and Copan". Ancient Mesoamerica. 16 (2): 291–304. doi: 10.1017/S0956536105050248 . JSTOR   26309185. S2CID   162394344. ProQuest   196684099.
  23. Inomata, Takeshi; Webb, Ronald W. (2003). "War, destruction, and abandonment: The fall of the Classic Maya center of Aguateca, Guatemala". The Archaeology of Settlement Abandonment in Middle America. University of Utah Press. pp. 43–60. ISBN   978-0-87480-752-3.
  24. Wright, Lori E. (2006). Diet, Health, and Status Among the Pasión Maya: A Reappraisal of the Collapse. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN   978-0-8265-1418-9.
  25. Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 409.
  26. Triadan, Daniela; Inomata, Takeshi (2014). Life and Politics at the Royal Court of Aguateca: Artifacts, Analytical Data, and Synthesis. University of Utah Press. ISBN   978-1-60781-319-4. Project MUSE   book 41408.
  27. Inomata, Takeshi (March 2013). "9 Negotiation of Inalienability and Meanings at the Classic Maya Center of Aguateca, Guatemala". Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association. 23 (1): 128–141. doi:10.1111/apaa.12020.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dos Pilas</span> Maya settlement

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seibal</span> Archaeological site of the Maya civilization

Seibal, known as El Ceibal in Spanish, is a Classic Period archaeological site of the Maya civilization located in the northern Petén Department of Guatemala, about 100 km SW of Tikal. It was the largest city in the Pasión River region.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mesoamerican pyramids</span> Prominent architectural features of ancient Mesoamerican civilizations

Mesoamerican pyramids form a prominent part of ancient Mesoamerican architecture. Although similar in some ways to Egyptian pyramids, these New World structures have flat tops and stairs ascending their faces. The largest pyramid in the world by volume is the Great Pyramid of Cholula, in the east-central Mexican state of Puebla. The builders of certain classic Mesoamerican pyramids have decorated them copiously with stories about the Hero Twins, the feathered serpent Quetzalcoatl, Mesoamerican creation myths, ritualistic sacrifice, etc. written in the form of Maya script on the rises of the steps of the pyramids, on the walls, and on the sculptures contained within.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Use-wear analysis</span>

Use-wear analysis is a method in archaeology to identify the functions of artifact tools by closely examining their working surfaces and edges. It is mainly used on stone tools, and is sometimes referred to as "traceological analysis".

Maya society concerns the social organization of the Pre-Hispanic Maya, its political structures, and social classes. The Maya people were indigenous to Mexico and Central America and the most dominant people groups of Central America up until the 6th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trade in Maya civilization</span> Transfer of ownership of goods and services

Trade in Maya civilization was a crucial factor in maintaining Maya cities.

Tamarindito is an archaeological site of the Maya civilization located along an escarpment in the Petén department of Guatemala. The city was the capital of the Petexbatún region of the southwestern Petén during the Early Classic period but was displaced by the newly founded conquest state of Dos Pilas. In the 8th century Tamarindito turned on its new overlord and defeated it. After the destruction of the Dos Pilas kingdom the region descended into chaos and suffered rapid population decline. The city was all but abandoned by the 9th century AD.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">La Joyanca</span>

La Joyanca is the modern name for a pre-Columbian Maya archaeological site located south of the San Pedro Martir river in the Petén department of Guatemala. It is east of the Maya site of La Florida (Namaan), now the modern town of El Naranjo on the Mexico-Guatemala border. The site was discovered in 1994 during the construction of the Xan-La Libertad oil pipeline in Guatemala. It was immediately recognized as an important, undiscovered Classic period Maya city and became the focus of an archaeological project. Directed by Charlotte Arnauld, Erik Ponciano, and Veronique Breuil, the La Joyanca project conducted excavations here between 1998 and 2003. Several members of this group have continued work at other related locations in the Northwest Peten, including the sites of Zapote Bobal and Pajaral, as part of the Proyecto Peten Noroccidente (PNO).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nakum</span> Mesoamerican archaeological site in modern-day Guatemala

Nakum is a Mesoamerican archaeological site, and a former ceremonial center and city of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization. It is located in the northeastern portion of the Petén Basin region, in the modern-day Guatemalan department of Petén. The northeastern Petén region contains a good number of other significant Maya sites, and Nakum is one of the three sites forming the Cultural Triangle of "Yaxha-Nakum-Naranjo". Nakum is approximately 17 kilometres (10.6 mi) to the north of Yaxha and some 25 kilometres (15.5 mi) to the east of Tikal, on the banks of the Holmul River. Its main features include an abundance of visibly restored architecture, and the roof comb of the site's main temple structure is one of the best-preserved outside Tikal.

Altar de Sacrificios is a ceremonial center and archaeological site of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization, situated near the confluence of the Pasión and Salinas Rivers, in the present-day department of Petén, Guatemala. Along with Seibal and Dos Pilas, Altar de Sacrificios is one of the better-known and most intensively-excavated sites in the region, although the site itself does not seem to have been a major political force in the Late Classic period.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maya civilization</span> Mesoamerican former civilization

The Maya civilization was a Mesoamerican civilization that existed from antiquity to the early modern period. It is known by its ancient temples and glyphs (script). The Maya script is the most sophisticated and highly developed writing system in the pre-Columbian Americas. The civilization is also noted for its art, architecture, mathematics, calendar, and astronomical system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maya warfare</span> Warfare of the Mesoamerican civilization

Although the Maya were once thought to have been peaceful, current theories emphasize the role of inter-polity warfare as a factor in the development and perpetuation of Maya society. The goals and motives of warfare in Maya culture are not thoroughly understood, but scholars have developed models for Maya warfare based on several lines of evidence, including fortified defenses around structure complexes, artistic and epigraphic depictions of war, and the presence of weapons such as obsidian blades and projectile points in the archaeological record. Warfare can also be identified from archaeological remains that suggest a rapid and drastic break in a fundamental pattern due to violence.

Simon Martin is a British epigrapher, historian, writer and Mayanist scholar. He is best known for his contributions to the study and decipherment of the Maya script, the writing system used by the pre-Columbian Maya civilisation of Mesoamerica. As one of the leading epigraphers active in contemporary Mayanist research, Martin has specialised in the study of the political interactions and dynastic histories of Classic-era Maya polities. Since 2003 Martin has held positions at the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology where he is currently an Associate Curator and Keeper in the American Section, while teaching select courses as an Adjunct Associate Professor in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Pennsylvania.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blue Creek (Belize)</span> River and archaeological site in Belize

Blue Creek is a riverine system and major archaeological site located in North-Western Belize, Central America. It is situated geographically on the Belize–Mexico border and then continues south across the Guatemala–Mexico border. The river is commonly known as the Río Azul or ‘Azul River’ in Spanish, which translates to ‘blue river’ or ‘blue creek’ in English.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Itzan</span>

Itzan is a Maya archaeological site located in the municipality of La Libertad in the Petén Department of Guatemala. Various small structures at the site were destroyed in the 1980s during oil exploration activities by Sonpetrol and Basic Resources Ltd, prompting rescue excavations by archaeologists. In spite of its small size, the site appears to have been the most politically important centre in its area, as evidenced by its unusually large quantity of monuments and the size of its major architecture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maya city</span> Centres of ancient Maya civilization in Mesoamerica

Maya cities were the centres of population of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization of Mesoamerica. They served the specialised roles of administration, commerce, manufacturing and religion that characterised ancient cities worldwide. Maya cities tended to be more dispersed than cities in other societies, even within Mesoamerica, as a result of adaptation to a lowland tropical environment that allowed food production amidst areas dedicated to other activities. They lacked the grid plans of the highland cities of central Mexico, such as Teotihuacán and Tenochtitlan. Maya kings ruled their kingdoms from palaces that were situated within the centre of their cities. Cities tended to be located in places that controlled trade routes or that could supply essential products. This allowed the elites that controlled trade to increase their wealth and status. Such cities were able to construct temples for public ceremonies, thus attracting further inhabitants to the city. Those cities that had favourable conditions for food production, combined with access to trade routes, were likely to develop into the capital cities of early Maya states.

Economy is conventionally defined as a function for production and distribution of goods and services by multiple agents within a society and/or geographical place An economy is hierarchical, made up of individuals that aggregate to make larger organizations such as governments and gives value to goods and services. The Maya economy had no universal form of trade exchange other than resources and services that could be provided among groups such as cacao beans and copper bells. Though there is limited archeological evidence to study the trade of perishable goods, it is noteworthy to explore the trade networks of artifacts and other luxury items that were likely transported together.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the Maya civilization</span> Mesoamerican civilization

The history of Maya civilization is divided into three principal periods: the Preclassic, Classic and Postclassic periods; these were preceded by the Archaic Period, which saw the first settled villages and early developments in agriculture. Modern scholars regard these periods as arbitrary divisions of chronology of the Maya civilization, rather than indicative of cultural evolution or decadence. Definitions of the start and end dates of period spans can vary by as much as a century, depending on the author. The Preclassic lasted from approximately 3000 BC to approximately 250 AD; this was followed by the Classic, from 250 AD to roughly 950 AD, then by the Postclassic, from 950 AD to the middle of the 16th century. Each period is further subdivided:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aguada Fénix</span> Pre-Columbian Mayan ruin in Tabasco, Mexico.

Aguada Fénix is a large Preclassic Mayan ruin located in the state of Tabasco, Mexico, near the border with Guatemala was discovered by aerial survey using laser mapping, and announced in 2020. The flattened mound, nearly a mile in length and between 33 and 50 feet tall, is described as the oldest and the largest Mayan ceremonial site known. The monumental structure is constructed of earth and clay, and is believed to have been built from around 1000 BC to 800 BC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Preclassic Period in Belize</span> Pre-Columbian period in Mesoamerican history

The Preclassic or Formative Period of Belizean, Maya, and Mesoamerican history began with the Maya development of ceramics during 2000 BC – 900 BC, and ended with the advent of Mayan monumental inscriptions in 250 AD.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Emery, Kitty F.; Aoyama, Kazuo (2007). "Bone, shell, and lithic evidence for crafting in elite Maya households at Aguateca, Guatemala". Ancient Mesoamerica. 18 (1): 69–89. doi: 10.1017/S0956536107000089 . JSTOR   26309322. S2CID   163044977. ProQuest   196680392.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Inomata, Takeshi; Triadan, Daniela; Ponciano, Erick; Pinto, Estela; Terry, Richard E.; Eberl, Markus (2002). "Domestic and Political Lives of Classic Maya Elites: The Excavation of Rapidly Abandoned Structures at Aguateca, Guatemala". Latin American Antiquity. 13 (3): 305–330. doi:10.2307/972113. JSTOR   972113. S2CID   155520148. Gale   A92448195.
  3. ↑ Martin & Grube (2000). p. 65
  4. ↑ Martin & Grube 2000, p. 65
  5. ↑ "Aguateca - Profile" . Retrieved 29 November 2010.
  6. ↑ Miller (1999), p. 35.
  7. 1 2 Culbert, T. Patrick (1991). Classic Maya Political History: Hieroglyphic and Archaeological Evidence. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-0-521-39210-5.[ page needed ]
  8. 1 2 3 Lohse, Jon C.; Valdez, Fred (2010). Ancient Maya Commoners. University of Texas Press. ISBN   978-0-292-77814-6.[ page needed ]
  9. ↑ Marcus, Joyce (1976). Emblem and State in the Classic Maya Lowlands: An Epigraphic Approach to Territorial Organization. Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN   978-0-88402-066-0.[ page needed ]
  10. ↑ Nielsen, Axel E.; Walker, William H. (2009). Warfare in Cultural Context: Practice, Agency, and the Archaeology of Violence. University of Arizona Press. ISBN   978-0-8165-4398-4.[ page needed ]
  11. ↑ Triadan, Daniela (2000). "Elite Household Subsistence at Aguateca, Guatemala". Mayab (13): 46–56.
  12. 1 2 Aoyama, Kazuo (2007). "Elite Artists and Craft Producers in Classic Maya Society: Lithic Evidence from Aguateca, Guatemala". Latin American Antiquity. 18 (1): 3–26. doi: 10.2307/25063083 . JSTOR   25063083. S2CID   161149243. Gale   A162184238.
  13. 1 2 Inomata, Takeshi (2006). "Plazas, Performers, and Spectators: Political Theaters of the Classic Maya". Current Anthropology. 47 (5): 805–842. doi:10.1086/506279. JSTOR   10.1086/506279. S2CID   150054455.
  14. ↑ Inomata, Takeshi; Triadan, Daniela; Ponciano, Erick; Terry, Richard; Beaubien, Harriet F. (January 2001). "In the Palace of the Fallen king: The Royal Residential Complex at Aguateca, Guatemala". Journal of Field Archaeology. 28 (3–4): 287–306. doi:10.1179/jfa.2001.28.3-4.287. JSTOR   3181436. S2CID   162187707.
  15. 1 2 3 Inomata, Takeshi; Ponciano, Erick; Chinchilla, Oswaldo; Román, Otto; Breuil-Martínez, Véronique; Santos, Oscar (December 2004). "An unfinished temple at the Classic Maya centre of Aguateca, Guatemala". Antiquity. 78 (302): 798–811. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00113456. S2CID   163577976. Gale   A127538851.
  16. ↑ Inomata, Takeshi (March 2013). "9 Negotiation of Inalienability and Meanings at the Classic Maya Center of Aguateca, Guatemala". Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association. 23 (1): 128–141. doi:10.1111/apaa.12020.
  17. 1 2 Aoyama, Kazuo (1 June 2006). "Political and socioeconomic implications of Classic Maya lithic artifacts from the Main Plaza of Aguateca, Guatemala". Journal de la société des américanistes. 92 (1–2): 7–40. doi: 10.4000/jsa.3078 . JSTOR   24606344.
  18. ↑ Emery, Kitty (January 2003). "The noble beast: status and differential access to animals in the Maya world". World Archaeology. 34 (3): 498–515. doi:10.1080/0043824021000026477. JSTOR   3560200. S2CID   143828798.
  19. 1 2 Triadan, Daniela; Inomata, Takeshi (2014). Life and Politics at the Royal Court of Aguateca: Artifacts, Analytical Data, and Synthesis. University of Utah Press. ISBN   978-1-60781-319-4. Project MUSE   book 41408.[ page needed ]
  20. ↑ Ishihara 2009, p. 1.
  21. ↑ Ishihara 2009, p. 367.
  22. ↑ Ishihara, Reiko (June 2008). "Rising clouds, blowing winds: Late Classic Maya rain rituals in the Main Chasm, Aguateca, Guatemala". World Archaeology. 40 (2): 169–189. doi:10.1080/00438240802030001. JSTOR   40388205. S2CID   154536421.
  23. ↑ Ishihara 2009, p. 2.
  24. ↑ Johnson, Kristofer D.; Wright, David R.; Terry, Richard E. (March 2007). "Application of carbon isotope analysis to ancient maize agriculture in the Petexbatún region of Guatemala". Geoarchaeology. 22 (3): 313–336. doi:10.1002/gea.20155. S2CID   129265248.
  25. ↑ Aoyama, Kazuo (2005). "Classic Maya Warfare and Weapons; Spear, Dart, and Arrow Points of Aguateca and Copan". Ancient Mesoamerica. 16 (2): 291–304. doi: 10.1017/S0956536105050248 . JSTOR   26309185. S2CID   162394344. ProQuest   196684099.
  26. ↑ Inomata, Takeshi; Webb, Ronald W. (2003). "War, destruction, and abandonment: The fall of the Classic Maya center of Aguateca, Guatemala". The Archaeology of Settlement Abandonment in Middle America. University of Utah Press. pp. 43–60. ISBN   978-0-87480-752-3.
  27. ↑ Wright, Lori E. (2006). Diet, Health, and Status Among the Pasión Maya: A Reappraisal of the Collapse. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN   978-0-8265-1418-9.[ page needed ]

Further reading

Commons-logo.svg Media related to Aguateca at Wikimedia Commons

16°23′41.92″N90°12′15.49″W / 16.3949778°N 90.2043028°W / 16.3949778; -90.2043028

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.