Assembly of the International Space Station

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Animation of the assembly of the International Space Station ISS-assembly-animation.gif
Animation of the assembly of the International Space Station

The process of assembling the International Space Station (ISS) has been under way since the 1990s. Zarya , the first ISS module, was launched by a Proton rocket on 20 November 1998. The STS-88 Space Shuttle mission followed two weeks after Zarya was launched, bringing Unity , the first of three node modules, and connecting it to Zarya. This bare 2-module core of the ISS remained uncrewed for the next one and a half years, until in July 2000 the Russian module Zvezda was launched by a Proton rocket, allowing a maximum crew of three astronauts or cosmonauts to be on the ISS permanently.

Contents

The ISS has a pressurized volume of approximately 1,000 cubic metres (35,000 cu ft), a mass of approximately 410,000 kilograms (900,000 lb), approximately 100 kilowatts of power output, a truss 108.4 metres (356 ft) long, modules 74 metres (243 ft) long, and a crew of seven. [1] Building the complete station required more than 40 assembly flights. As of 2020, 36 Space Shuttle flights delivered ISS elements. Other assembly flights consisted of modules lifted by the Falcon 9, Russian Proton rocket or, in the case of Pirs and Poisk , the Soyuz-U rocket.

Some of the larger modules include:

Logistics

International Space Station mockup at Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. ISSMockupHouston.JPG
International Space Station mockup at Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas.

The space station is located in orbit around the Earth at an altitude of approximately 410 km (250 mi), a type of orbit usually termed low Earth orbit (the actual height varies over time by several kilometers due to atmospheric drag and reboosts). It orbits Earth in a period of about 90 minutes; by August 2007 it had completed more than 50,000 orbits since launch of Zarya on 20 November 1998.

A total of 14 main pressurized modules were scheduled to be part of the ISS by its completion date in 2010. [2] A number of smaller pressurized sections will be adjunct to them (Soyuz spacecraft (permanently 2 as lifeboats – 6 months rotations), Progress transporters (2 or more), the Quest and Pirs airlocks, as well as periodically the H-II Transfer Vehicle).

The US Orbital Segment was completed in 2011 after the installation of the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer during the STS-134 mission. The Russian Orbital Segment assembly has been on an indefinite hiatus since the installation of the Rassvet module in 2010 during the STS-132 mission. The Rassvet module on the ISS right now was originally supposed to be the on-ground dynamic testing mock-up of the now-cancelled Science Power Platform. The Nauka science laboratory module contains new crew quarters, life support equipment that can produce oxygen and water, and a new galley. The Nauka was originally supposed to be delivered to the ISS in 2007 but cost overruns and quality control problems delayed it for over a decade. The Nauka module finally launched in July 2021 and docked to the nadir port of Zvezda module after several days of free flight [3] followed by the Prichal which launched on 24 November 2021.

There are plans to add 2 or 3 more modules that would attach to Prichal during the mid-2020s. Adding more Russian modules will help the Zvezda module greatly because Zvezda's originally installed central command computers no longer work (three ThinkPad laptops are now the Zvezda's central command computers) and its Elektron oxygen generators are not replaceable and failed again for a short time in 2020 after multiple malfunctions throughout their history. [4] In Russian modules all the hardware is launched with the equipment permanently installed. It is impossible to replace hardware like in the US Orbital Segment with its very wide 51 inch (105 cm) hatch openings between modules. This potential problem with the Zvezda was made apparent when in October 2020 the toilet, oven, and Elektron all malfunctioned at the same time and the cosmonauts onboard had to make emergency repairs. [5]

The ISS, when completed, will consist of a set of communicating pressurized modules connected to a truss, on which four large pairs of photovoltaic modules (solar panels) are attached. The pressurized modules and the truss are perpendicular: the truss spanning from starboard to port and the habitable zone extending on the aft-forward axis. Although during the construction the station attitude may vary, when all four photovoltaic modules are in their definitive position the aft-forward axis will be parallel to the velocity vector. [6]

In addition to the assembly and utilization flights, approximately 30 Progress spacecraft flights are required to provide logistics until 2010. Experimental equipment, fuel and consumables are and will be delivered by all vehicles visiting the ISS: the SpaceX Dragon, the Russian Progress, the European ATV and the Japanese HTV, and space station downmass will be carried back to Earth facilities on the Dragon. [7]

Columbia disaster and changes in construction plans

Columbia lifting off on its final mission. Close-up STS-107 Launch - GPN-2003-00080.jpg
Columbia lifting off on its final mission.

Disaster and consequences

10 March 2001 - The Leonardo Multi-Purpose Logistics Module rests in Space Shuttle Discovery's payload bay during STS-102. Mplm in shuttle.jpg
10 March 2001 – The Leonardo Multi-Purpose Logistics Module rests in Space Shuttle Discovery 's payload bay during STS-102.

After the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster on 1 February 2003, there was some uncertainty over the future of the ISS. The subsequent two and a half-year suspension of the U.S. Space Shuttle program, followed by problems with resuming flight operations in 2005, were major obstacles.[ citation needed ]

The Space Shuttle program resumed flight on 26 July 2005, with the STS-114 mission of Discovery. This mission to the ISS was intended both to test new safety measures implemented since the Columbia disaster and deliver supplies to the station. Although the mission succeeded safely, it was not without risk; foam was shed by the external tank, leading NASA to announce future missions would be grounded until this issue was resolved.[ citation needed ]

Between the Columbia disaster and the resumption of Shuttle launches, crew exchanges were carried out solely using the Russian Soyuz spacecraft. Starting with Expedition 7, two-astronaut caretaker crews were launched in contrast to the previously launched crews of three. Because the ISS had not been visited by a shuttle for an extended period, a larger than planned amount of waste accumulated, temporarily hindering station operations in 2004. However Progress transports and the STS-114 shuttle flight took care of this problem.[ citation needed ]

Changes in construction plans

Construction of the International Space Station over New Zealand. STS-116 spacewalk 1.jpg
Construction of the International Space Station over New Zealand.

Many changes were made to the originally planned ISS, even before the Columbia disaster. Modules and other structures were cancelled or replaced, and the number of Shuttle flights to the ISS was reduced from previously planned numbers. However, more than 80% of the hardware intended to be part of the ISS in the late 1990s was orbited and is now part of the ISS's configuration.[ citation needed ]

During the shuttle stand-down, construction of the ISS was halted and the science conducted aboard was limited due to the crew size of two, adding to earlier delays due to Shuttle problems and the Russian space agency's budget constraints.[ citation needed ]

In March 2006, a meeting of the heads of the five participating space agencies accepted the new ISS construction schedule that planned to complete the ISS by 2010. [8]

As of May 2009, a crew of six has been established following 12 Shuttle construction flights after the second "Return to Flight" mission STS-121. Requirements for stepping up the crew size included enhanced environmental support on the ISS, a second Soyuz permanently docked on the station to function as a second 'lifeboat', more frequent Progress flights to provide double the amount of consumables, more fuel for orbit raising maneuvers, and a sufficient supply line of experimental equipment.[ citation needed ] As of November 2020, the crew capacity has increased to seven due to the launch of Crew Dragon by SpaceX, which can carry 4 astronauts to the ISS.

Later additions included the Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM) in 2016, and numerous Russian components are planned as part of the in-orbit construction of OPSEK.[ citation needed ]

Assembly sequence

ISS elements ISS configuration 2022-12 en.svg
ISS elements
Structure of the International Space Station in mid-June 2023, after the installation of six iROSAs Iss after installation of all roll out solar arrays.jpg
Structure of the International Space Station in mid-June 2023, after the installation of six iROSAs

The ISS is made up of 16 pressurized modules: six Russian modules (Zarya, Zvezda, Poisk, Rassvet, Nauka, and Prichal), eight US modules (BEAM, [9] Leonardo, Harmony, Quest, Tranquility, Unity, Cupola, and Destiny), one Japanese module (Kibō) and one European module (Columbus).

At least one Russian pressurized module (Pirs) is deorbited till now. [10]

Although not permanently docked with the ISS, Multi-Purpose Logistics Modules (MPLMs) formed part of the ISS during some Shuttle missions. An MPLM was attached to Harmony (initially to Unity) and was used for resupply and logistics flights.[ citation needed ]

Spacecraft attached to the ISS also extend the pressurized volume. At least one Soyuz spacecraft is always docked as a 'lifeboat' and is replaced every six months by a new Soyuz as part of crew rotation. Table below shows the sequence in which these components were added to the ISS. [11] Decommissioned and deorbited Modules are shown in gray.

ElementAssembly
flight		Launch
date		Launch
vehicle		LengthDiameterMassIsolated ViewStation View
Zarya (FGB)1A/R1998-11-20 Proton-K 12.56 m (41.2 ft)4.1 m (13 ft)24,968 kg (55,045 lb) Zarya from STS-88.jpg Zarya from STS-88.jpg
Unity (Node 1)2A1998-12-04 Space Shuttle Endeavour (STS-88)5.5 m (18 ft)4.3 m (14 ft)11,895 kg (26,224 lb) ISS Unity module.jpg Sts088-703-019e.jpg
PMA-1 1.86 m (6 ft 1 in)1.9 m (6 ft 3 in)1,589 kg (3,503 lb) PMA-3 arrives in SSPF.jpg
PMA-2 1.86 m (6 ft 1 in)1.9 m (6 ft 3 in)1,376 kg (3,034 lb) PMA-3 arrives in SSPF.jpg
Zvezda (Service Module)1R2000-07-12 Proton-K 13.1 m (43 ft)4.2 m (14 ft)24,604 kg (54,243 lb) View of the bottom of Zvezda.jpg Unity-Zarya-Zvezda STS-106.jpg
Z1 Truss 3A2000-10-11 Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-92)4.6 m (15 ft)4.2 m (14 ft)8,755 kg (19,301 lb) ISS Unity and Z1 truss structure from STS-92.jpg S97e5009.jpg
PMA-3 1.86 m (6 ft 1 in)1.9 m (6 ft 3 in)1,183 kg (2,608 lb) PMA-3 arrives in SSPF.jpg
P6 Truss & Solar Arrays 4A2000-11-30 Space Shuttle Endeavour (STS-97)18.3 m (60 ft)10.7 m (35 ft) deployed15,824 kg (34,886 lb) STS-97 ISS.jpg STS-97 ISS.jpg
Destiny (US Laboratory)5A2001-02-07 Space Shuttle Atlantis (STS-98)9.2 m (30 ft)4.3 m (14 ft)14,515 kg (32,000 lb) ISS Destiny Lab.jpg Sts098-312-0020.jpg
ESP-1 5A.12001-03-08 Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-102) STS-102 External Storage Platform 1 crop.jpg S102e5350.jpg
Canadarm2 (SSRMS)6A2001-04-19 Space Shuttle Endeavour (STS-100) STS-114 Steve Robinson on Canadarm2.jpg S100e5958 cropped.jpg
Quest (Joint Airlock)7A2001-07-12 Space Shuttle Atlantis (STS-104)5.5 m (18 ft)4.0 m (13.1 ft)9,923 kg (21,876 lb) ISS Quest airlock.jpg ISS on 20 August 2001.jpg
Pirs (Docking Compartment)4R2001-09-14 Soyuz-U (Progress M-SO1)4.9 m (16 ft)2.55 m (8.4 ft)3,838 kg (8,461 lb) Pirs docking module taken by STS-108.jpg S108e5628.jpg
S0 Truss [12] 8A2002-04-08 Space Shuttle Atlantis (STS-110)13.4 m (44 ft)4.6 m (15 ft)13,971 kg (30,801 lb) S0 Truss lifted from Shuttles cargo bay.jpg International Space Station.jpg
Mobile Base System UF22002-06-05 Space Shuttle Endeavour (STS-111) STS-111 Installation of Mobile Base System.jpg Sts111-711-005.jpg
S1 Truss 9A2002-10-07 Space Shuttle Atlantis (STS-112)13.7 m (45 ft)4.6 m (15 ft)14,124 kg (31,138 lb) ISS S1 Truss.jpg S112e05823.jpg
P1 Truss 11A2002-11-23 Space Shuttle Endeavour (STS-113)13.7 m (45 ft)4.6 m (15 ft)14,003 kg (30,871 lb) ISS Truss structure.jpg ISS Mission STS-113.jpg
ESP-2 LF12005-07-26 Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-114) STS-114 External Storage Platform 2 crop.jpg ISS Aug2005.jpg
P3/P4 Truss & Solar Arrays [13] 12A2006-09-09 Space Shuttle Atlantis (STS-115)13.7 m (45 ft)4.6 m (15 ft)15,824 kg (34,886 lb) STS-115 EVA 2 on Day 5.jpg STS-115 ISS after undocking.jpg
P5 Truss [14] 12A.12006-12-09 Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-116)3.37 m (11.1 ft)4.55 m (14.9 ft)1,864 kg (4,109 lb) STS-116 - ISS P5 Truss awaits installation (NASA ISS014-E-09479).jpg ISS after STS-116 in December 2006.jpg
S3/S4 Truss & Solar Arrays 13A2007-06-08 Space Shuttle Atlantis (STS-117)13.7 m (45 ft)10.7 m (35 ft)15,824 kg (34,886 lb) S3-S4 Truss Installed 2.jpg ISS after STS-117 in June 2007.jpg
S5 Truss 13A.12007-08-08 Space Shuttle Endeavour (STS-118)3.37 m (11.1 ft)4.55 m (14.9 ft)1,864 kg (4,109 lb) STS-116 - P5 Truss hand-off to ISS (NASA S116-E-05765).jpg ISS after STS-118 in August 2007.jpg
ESP-3 STS-118 ESP-3 on RMS.jpg
Harmony (Node 2)10A2007-10-23 Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-120)7.2 m

(24 ft)

4.4 m

(14 ft)

14,300 kg (31,500 lb) Harmony Relocation.jpg ISS after STS-120 in November 2007.jpg
Relocation of
P6 Truss 		18.3 m (60 ft)10.7 m (35 ft) deployed15,824 kg (34,886 lb) S6 Truss Transfer (STS-119).jpg
Columbus (European Laboratory) [15] 1E2008-02-07 Space Shuttle Atlantis (STS-122)7 m

(23 ft)

4.5 m

(15 ft)

12,800 kg (28,219 lb) Columbus module - cropped.jpg STS-122 ISS Flyaround.jpg
Dextre (SPDM)1J/A2008-03-11 Space Shuttle Endeavour (STS-123) S123 Dextre01.jpg STS-123 ISS Flyaround cropped.jpg
Experiment Logistics Module (ELM)4.21 m (13.8 ft)4.39 m (14.4 ft)8,386 kg (18,488 lb) Kibo ELM-PS on ISS.jpg
JEM Pressurized Module (JEM-PM) [16] [17] 1J2008-05-31 Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-124)11.19 m (36.7 ft)4.39 m (14.4 ft)15,900 kg (35,100 lb) STS-124 Kibo.jpg ISS after STS-124 06 2008.jpg
JEM Remote Manipulator System (JEMRMS)
S6 Truss & Solar Arrays 15A2009-03-15 Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-119)18.3 m (60 ft)10.7 m (35 ft) deployed15,824 kg (34,886 lb) S6 Truss Transfer (STS-119).jpg ISS March 2009.jpg
Kibo Exposed Facility (JEM-EF)2J/A2009-07-15 Space Shuttle Endeavour (STS-127) STS-127 JEM-EF.jpg ISS & Endeavour Shadow STS-127 2.jpg
Poisk (MRM-2) [18] [19] 5R2009-11-10 Soyuz-U (Progress M-MIM2)4.049 m (13.28 ft)2.55 m (8 ft 4 in)3,670 kg (8,090 lb) Poisk.Jpeg STS-129 Atlantis approaches below the ISS.jpg
ELC-1 ULF32009-11-16 Space Shuttle Atlantis (STS-129)6,280 kg (13,850 lb) ELC2 STS 129.JPG ISS ULF3 STS-129.jpg
ELC-2 6,100 kg (13,400 lb) ELC2 STS 129.JPG
Tranquility (Node 3)20A2010-02-08 Space Shuttle Endeavour (STS-130)6.706 m (22.00 ft)4.48 m (14.7 ft)19,000 kg (42,000 lb) Tranquility-node3.JPG ISSpoststs130.jpg
Cupola 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in)2.95 m (9 ft 8 in)1,880 kg (4,140 lb) Exterior of Cupola - Exp28.jpg
Rassvet (MRM-1) [20] ULF42010-05-14 Space Shuttle Atlantis (STS-132)6 m (20 ft)2.35 m (7 ft 9 in)8,015 kg (17,670 lb) STS-132 ISS-23 Rassvet Pirs and Progress M-05M.jpg International Space Station after undocking of STS-132.jpg
Nauka Science Airlock
Nauka RTOd Radiator
ERA portable workpost
Leonardo (PMM)ULF52011-02-24 Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-133)6.6 m

(22 ft)

4.57 m (15.0 ft)4,082 kg (8,999 lb) STS-133 ISS-26 Permanent Multipurpose Module.jpg STS-133 International Space Station after undocking.jpg
ELC-4 3,735 kg (8,234 lb) ELC2 STS 129.JPG
AMS-02 ULF62011-05-16 Space Shuttle Endeavour (STS-134)7,500 kg (16,500 lb) Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer - 02.jpg STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg
OBSS STS-120 OBSS repair.jpg
ELC-3 6,361 kg (14,024 lb) ELC2 STS 129.JPG
HRSGF CRS SpX-22013-03-13 Falcon 9 (SpaceX CRS-2)
BEAM [21] CRS SpX-82016-04-08 Falcon 9 (SpaceX CRS-8)4.01 m (13.2 ft)3.23 m (10.6 ft)1,413 kg (3,115 lb) Beam-instalation-space-station.jpg ISS-56 International Space Station fly-around (04).jpg
IDA-2 [22] [23] CRS SpX-92016-07-18 Falcon 9 (SpaceX CRS-9) IDA-2 upright.jpg
IDA-3 [24] CRS SpX-182019-07-25 Falcon 9 (SpaceX CRS-18)
Bartolomeo [25] CRS SpX-202020-03-06 Falcon 9 (SpaceX CRS-20).
Nanoracks Bishop Airlock CRS SpX-212020-12-06 Falcon 9 (SpaceX CRS-21)1.80 m (5 ft 11 in)2.014 m (6 ft 7.3 in)1,059 kg (2,335 lb) Bishop Airlock Module.jpg
iROSA 1 and 2CRS SpX-222021-06-03 Falcon 9 (SpaceX CRS-22)325 kg (717 lb) ISS-52 Roll Out Solar Array (ROSA) (4).jpg View of the ISS taken during Crew-2 flyaround (ISS066-E-080651).jpg
Nauka (MLM-U) [26] 3R2021-07-21 Proton-M 13 m (43 ft)4.25 m (13.9 ft)20,300 kg (44,800 lb) Nauka Module as seen from Cupola during VKD-51 spacewalk.jpg View of the ISS taken during Crew-2 flyaround (ISS066-E-080300).jpg
European Robotic Arm 11.3 m (37 ft)630 kg (1,390 lb)
Nauka SSPA-GM temporary docking adapter
MLM Means of Attachment of Large payloads
(LCCS Part) 		79P2021-10-28 Soyuz 2.1a (Progress MS-18)
Prichal 6R2021-11-24 Soyuz 2.1b (Progress M-UM)4.91 m (16.1 ft)3.3 m (11 ft)3,890 kg (8,580 lb) Russian Spacewalkers dwarfed by the Prichal module (cropped).jpg
MLM Means of Attachment of Large payloads
(SCCS Part) 		82P2022-10-26 Soyuz 2.1a (Progress MS-21)
iROSA 3 and 4CRS SpX-262022-11-26 Falcon 9 (SpaceX CRS-26)325 kg (717 lb) ISS-52 Roll Out Solar Array (ROSA) (4).jpg
iROSA 5 and 6CRS SpX-282023-06-05 Falcon 9 (SpaceX CRS-28)325 kg (717 lb) ISS-52 Roll Out Solar Array (ROSA) (4).jpg

    Future elements

    Cancelled modules

    Diagram of the planned ISS circa 1999 ISS components.svg
    Diagram of the planned ISS circa 1999

    Unused modules

    The following module was built, but has not been used in future plans for the ISS as of January 2021.

    Cost

    The ISS is credited as the most expensive item ever built, costing around $150 billion (USD), [36] making it more expensive than Skylab (costing US$2.2 billion) [37] and Mir (US$4.2 billion). [38]

    See also

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    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Soyuz TMA-17</span> 2009 Russian crewed spaceflight to the ISS

    Soyuz TMA-17 was a human spaceflight mission to the International Space Station (ISS). TMA-17 crew members participated in ISS Expedition 22 and Expedition 23. The mission ended when the Soyuz TMA-17 capsule landed on 2 June 2010.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Expedition 27</span> Long-duration mission to the International Space Station

    Expedition 27 was the 27th long-duration expedition to the International Space Station (ISS), starting on 16 March 2011. Expedition 27 saw numerous notable events, including the undocking of the Progress M-09M and Kounotori 2 spacecraft, the arrival of the Soyuz TMA-21 and Progress M-10M spacecraft, and the final rendezvous with the ISS of NASA's Space Shuttle Endeavour, on its last mission, STS-134. The expedition ended on 23 May 2011 with the departure of the Soyuz TMA-20 spacecraft, although command of the station was ceremonially handed over to the crew of Expedition 28 on 22 May.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Russian Orbital Segment</span> Russian components of the International Space Station

    The Russian Orbital Segment (ROS) is the name given to the components of the International Space Station (ISS) constructed in Russia and operated by the Russian Roscosmos. The ROS handles Guidance, Navigation, and Control for the entire Station.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">US Orbital Segment</span> US components of the International Space Station

    The US Orbital Segment (USOS) is the name given to the components of the International Space Station (ISS) constructed and operated by the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), European Space Agency (ESA), Canadian Space Agency (CSA) and Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). The segment consists of eleven pressurized components and various external elements, all of which were delivered by the Space Shuttle.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Docking and berthing of spacecraft</span> Joining of two or more space vehicles

    Docking and berthing of spacecraft is the joining of two space vehicles. This connection can be temporary, or partially permanent such as for space station modules.

    References

    1. ↑ "4 Astronauts Aboard SpaceX Crew Dragon Successfully Dock With Space Station". www.npr.org. 17 November 2020. Retrieved 16 August 2021.
    2. ↑ "Consolidated Launch Manifest". NASA. Archived from the original on 7 July 2006. Retrieved 15 July 2006.
    3. ↑ "Новости. Подготовка "Науки" — идет четвёртый стартовый день". www.roscosmos.ru. Retrieved 2 November 2021.
    4. ↑ "Oxygen supply system deactivated in Russian ISS section due to malfunction". TASS. Retrieved 23 January 2023.
    5. ↑ Retrieved 15 December 2020
    6. ↑ "What are the ISS attitudes?". NASA. Archived from the original (Flash) on 2 September 2006. Retrieved 11 September 2006.
    7. ↑ Black, Charles (24 December 2012). "When Dragon made commercial spaceflight a reality". SEN. Retrieved 26 December 2012. [Dragon's] ability to return goods is currently unique because all the other regular supply ships – Europe's Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV), Japan's HTV (or "Kounotori") and Russia's Progress – all burn up during controlled re-entry.
    8. ↑ Coppinger, Rob (3 March 2006). "NASA commits to Shuttle missions to International Space Station". FlightGlobal. Retrieved 16 September 2006.
    9. ↑ Retrieved 27 November 2017.
    10. ↑ Gebhardt, Chris (25 July 2021). "Farewell, Pirs; ISS module decommissioned, destructively reentered". NASASpaceFlight.com. Retrieved 9 April 2022.
    11. ↑ "Reference Guide to the International Space Station" (PDF). NASA. September 2015. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
    12. ↑ "Space Station Assembly: Integrated Truss Structure". NASA. Archived from the original on 7 December 2007. Retrieved 2 December 2007.
    13. ↑ "P3 and P4 to expand station capabilities, providing a third and fourth solar array" (PDF). Boeing. July 2006. Retrieved 2 December 2007.
    14. ↑ "STS-118 MISSION OVERVIEW: BUILD THE STATION…BUILD THE FUTURE" (PDF). NASA PAO. July 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 December 2007. Retrieved 2 December 2007.
    15. ↑ "Columbus laboratory". ESA. 10 January 2009. Archived from the original on 30 March 2009. Retrieved 6 March 2009.
    16. ↑ "About Kibo". JAXA. 25 September 2008. Archived from the original on 10 March 2009. Retrieved 6 March 2009.
    17. ↑ "Kibo Japanese Experiment Module". NASA. 23 November 2007. Archived from the original on 23 October 2008. Retrieved 22 November 2008.
    18. ↑ Zak, Anatoly. "Docking Compartment-1 and 2". RussianSpaceWeb.com. Archived from the original on 10 February 2009. Retrieved 26 March 2009.
    19. ↑ Bergin, Chris (9 November 2009). "Russian module launches via Soyuz for Thursday ISS docking". NASASpaceflight.com. Archived from the original on 13 November 2009. Retrieved 10 November 2009.
    20. ↑ "NASA Extends Contract With Russia's Federal Space Agency" (Press release). NASA. 9 April 2007. Archived from the original on 23 June 2007. Retrieved 15 June 2007.
    21. ↑ "NASA to Test Bigelow Expandable Module on Space Station". NASA. 16 January 2013. Retrieved 16 January 2013.
    22. ↑ Jason Rhian (18 July 2016). "SpaceX Conducts Second Ground Landing After Launch Of CRS-9 Dragon To ISS". Spaceflight Insider.
    23. ↑ Harwood, William (19 August 2016). "Spacewalkers attach docking adapter to space station for commercial vehicles". Spaceflight. Retrieved 20 August 2016.
    24. ↑ "Spacewalkers Complete Installation of Second Commercial Docking Port – Space Station". blogs.nasa.gov.
    25. ↑ "Successful launch for Airbus' Bartolomeo". Airbus (Press release). 9 March 2020. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
    26. ↑ "FGB-based Multipurpose Lab Module (MLM-U)". Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Centre. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 31 October 2008.
    27. ↑ "NASA to upgrade space station solar arrays". SpaceNews. 12 January 2021.
    28. ↑ "New solar arrays ready to upgrade International Space Station's power grid". Spaceflight Now. 2 June 2021. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
    29. ↑ Davenport, Justin (15 June 2023). "ISS finishes initial iROSA upgrade with two EVAs this month". NASASpaceFlight.com. Retrieved 18 June 2023.
    30. ↑ "Axiom Commercial Space Station". Axiom Space.
    31. ↑ "Nautilus X Holderman - 1 26 11 | PDF | Flight Controller | International Space Station". Scribd.
    32. ↑ "Научно-энергетический модуль запустят на "Ангаре" с Восточного" [The Science Power Module will be launched on an Angara from Vostochny]. Roscosmos (in Russian). 24 April 2021. Retrieved 26 April 2021.
    33. ↑ Zak, Anatoly (16 April 2021). "Russian Orbital Service Station, ROSS". RussianSpaceWeb. Retrieved 26 April 2021.
    34. ↑ Harding, Pete (20 December 2010). "ISS Managers review long-term configuration of International Space Station".
    35. ↑ "Spaceflight Now | Breaking News | Test article could facilitate space station applications". spaceflightnow.com.
    36. ↑ "Is The International Space Station The Most Expensive Single Item Ever Built?". Science 2.0. 27 August 2014. Retrieved 3 May 2018.
    37. ↑ "The Space Review: Costs of US piloted programs". www.thespacereview.com. Retrieved 3 May 2018.
    38. ↑ Tyler, Patrick E. (24 March 2001). "Russians Find Pride, and Regret, in Mir's Splashdown". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 3 May 2018.
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