Banded stilt

Last updated

Banded stilt
Banded Stilts Rottnest.jpg
Banded stilts,
Rottnest Island
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Charadriiformes
Family: Recurvirostridae
Genus: Cladorhynchus
G.R. Gray, 1840
Species:
C. leucocephalus
Binomial name
Cladorhynchus leucocephalus
(Vieillot, 1816)
Bandedstiltrgemap.png
Banded stilt natural range
Synonyms [2]

Recurvirostra leucocephalaVieillot
Recurvirostra orientalisCuvier, 1816
Leptorhynchus pectoralis Du Bus, 1835
Himantopus palmatusGould
Cladorhynchus australisLawson
Cladorhynchus leucocephalus rottnestiMathews
Xiphidiorhynchus pectoralis Ludwig Reichenbach, 1845

Contents

The banded stilt (Cladorhynchus leucocephalus) is a nomadic wader of the stilt and avocet family, Recurvirostridae, native to Australia. It belongs to the monotypic genus Cladorhynchus. It gets its name from the red-brown breast band found on breeding adults, though this is mottled or entirely absent in non-breeding adults and juveniles. Its remaining plumage is pied and the eyes are dark brown. Nestling banded stilts have white down, unlike any other species of wader.

Breeding is triggered by the filling of inland salt lakes by rainfall, creating large shallow lakes rich in tiny shrimp on which the birds feed. Banded stilts migrate to these lakes in large numbers and assemble in large breeding colonies. The female lays three to four brown- or black-splotched whitish eggs on a scrape. If conditions are favourable, a second brood might be laid, though if the lakes dry up prematurely the breeding colonies may be abandoned.

The banded stilt is considered to be a species of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Under the South Australian National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 , however, this bird is considered to be Vulnerable. This is due to the predation of it by silver gulls, which are considered to be a serious threat. Black falcons and wedge-tailed eagles are also predators, taking the banded stilt and its young.

Taxonomy

French ornithologist Louis Pierre Vieillot described the banded stilt in 1816, classifying it in the avocet genus Recurvirostra and giving it the name Recurvirostra leucocephala, "L'avocette a tete blanche" ("white-headed avocet"). [3] He only recorded the species as being found in terres australes, the meaning of which is unclear. Amateur ornithologist Gregory Mathews interpreted this as Victoria, while Erwin Stresemann concluded this was Rottnest Island in Western Australia. [4] The species name is derived from the Ancient Greek words leukos "white", and kephale "head". [4] French naturalist Georges Cuvier described it as Recurvirostra orientalis the same year. [2] [5] Belgian ornithologist Bernard du Bus de Gisignies described it as a new genus and species, Leptorhynchus pectoralis, to the Royal Academy of Belgium in 1835. [6]

English zoologist George Robert Gray placed the banded stilt in its own genus Cladorhynchus in 1840, noting that the name Leptorhynchus had been previously used. [7] The genus name is from the Ancient Greek klados "twig" and rhynchos "bill". [4] Likewise, German naturalist Johannes Gistel proposed the name Timeta to replace Leptorhynchus in 1848. [8] John Gould had described the banded stilt as Himantopus palmatus in 1837, but recorded it as Cladorhynchus pectoralis in his 1865 work Handbook to the Birds of Australia. Gould also wrote that its distribution was unclear after it was first recorded at Rottnest Island though not elsewhere in Western Australia, and later in South Australia, until large numbers were seen by the British explorer Charles Sturt at Lepson's Lake north of Cooper Creek in what is now western Queensland. [9] [10] German naturalist Ludwig Reichenbach placed it in a new genus, naming it Xiphidiorhynchus pectoralis in 1845. [11] Australian ornithologist Fred Lawson gave it the name Cladorhynchus australis in 1904. [12] Gregory Mathews in his 1913 List of the Birds of Australia synonymised all subsequent genus and species names, using Cladorhynchus australis. [13] He listed his subspecies rottnesti from 1913, though this has not been recognised since. [2] Both Joseph G. Strauch in a 1978 study and Philip C. Chu in a 1995 re-analysis of bone and muscle characters found that the banded stilt was sister taxon to the avocets, with the stilts of the genus Himantopus an earlier offshoot. [14] [15] A 2004 study combining genetics and morphology reinforced its position as sister to the avocet lineage. [16]

English naturalist John Latham gave the bird the name "oriental avocet" in 1824, after Cuvier's description. [17] "Banded stilt" has been designated the official name by the International Ornithological Committee (IOC). [18] Other common names include "Rottnest snipe" and "bishop snipe". [4] [12] The Ngarrindjeri people of the Lower Murray River region in South Australia knew it as nilkani. [19]

Description

Taking off, Port Fairy Bandedstilttakeoff.jpg
Taking off, Port Fairy

The banded stilt is 45–53 cm (18–21 in) long and weighs 220–260 g (7.8–9.2 oz), with a wingspan of 55–68 cm (22–27 in). Adults in breeding plumage are predominantly white with black wings and a broad well-demarcated u-shaped chestnut band across the breast. [4] The central part of the base of the upper tail is tinted a pale grey-brown. [20] The slender bill is black, [21] relatively straight, [22] and twice as long as the head. [23] The irises are dark brown and the legs and feet are a dark red-pink. [21] The wings are long and slim and have eleven primary flight feathers, with the tenth being the longest. [23] In flight, the wings are mostly black when seen from above, but have a white trailing edge from the tips of the inner primaries. [4] From underneath, the wings are predominantly white with dark tips. White feathers on the head and neck have pale grey bases, which are normally hidden. [20] Non-breeding plumage is similar, but the chest band is less distinct and often diluted to an ashy brown or mottled with white. [4] The legs are a paler- or orange-pink. [21] There is no difference in plumage between the sexes, [4] nor has any geographic variation been recorded. [23]

Juvenile birds resemble adults but have a greyish forehead and lores, duller black wings, and lack the characteristic breast band. [4] Adult plumage is attained in the second year. [20] Their legs and feet are grey, becoming more blotched with pink until adulthood. [21] Nestling banded stilts are covered in white down. [21]

A distinctive bird, the banded stilt is hard to confuse with any other species; the white-headed stilt lacks the breast band, and the red-necked avocet has a chestnut head and neck, [24] and a distinctly upcurved bill. [22]

Adults make a barking call that has been written as cow or chowk, sometimes with two syllables as chowk-uk or chuk-uk. Birds also chatter softly and tunefully while nesting. [25]

Distribution and habitat

A colony of banded stilts, Coorong, South Australia; some red-necked avocets can be seen at far right. Banded Stilts at the Coorong.JPG
A colony of banded stilts, Coorong, South Australia; some red-necked avocets can be seen at far right.

The banded stilt is generally found in southern Australia. In Western Australia, it is found predominantly in the southwestern corner, though can be as far north as the saltworks in Port Hedland. [24] Breeding took place at Lake Ballard in the Goldfields-Esperance after heavy rainfall from Cyclone Bobby in 1995, and then again after flooding in 2014. [26] In 1933 a large colony had been recorded at Lake Grace, but had succumbed to attack presumably by foxes. [27] The banded stilt has been recorded in southeastern South Australia, as well as the drainage of the Lake Eyre system, and in Victoria west of Port Phillip and the Wimmera. [24] In July 2010 Lake Torrens filled with water, resulting in the influx of around 150,000 banded stilts. [28] The Natimuk-Douglas Wetlands in western Victoria are an important nesting ground for the species, though lower numbers come here if there is flooding elsewhere in southeastern Australia. [29] In New South Wales, it is most commonly found in the Riverina and western parts of the state, and has reached southern Queensland and the Northern Territory, where it has been found at the sewage ponds at Alice Springs and Erldunda. [24] It has been recorded as a vagrant to Tasmania, with significant numbers recorded in 1981. [24]

The preferred habitats are large, shallow saline or hypersaline lakes, either inland or near the coast, including ephemeral salt lakes, salt works, lagoons, salt- or claypans and intertidal flats. The species is occasionally found in brackish or fresh water, including farm dams and sewage ponds. [24]

The banded stilt is highly nomadic, having adapted to the unpredictable climate of Australia's arid interior. Sudden rainfall results in the influx of water to and filling of dry inland salt lakes. The stilts respond by travelling to these areas and breeding, dispersing and returning to the coast once the lakes begin to dry up. How banded stilts on the coast become aware of inland rainfall is unknown. The distances travelled can be large; two birds have been tracked travelling from a drying Lake Eyre in South Australia to a newly filled lake system in Western Australia over 1,500 km (930 mi) away. One of these birds veered northwest over the Gibson Desert, travelling a minimum of 2,263 km (1,406 mi) in 55.9 hours. [30]

Behaviour

The banded stilt is gregarious; birds are almost always encountered in groups, from small troops of tens of birds, to huge flocks numbering in the tens of thousands. [31]

Breeding

The breeding habits of the banded stilt were unknown until 1930, when a colony was discovered at Lake Grace. [32] Even then they remained poorly known until 2012, when researcher Reece Pedler and colleagues attached tracking devices to 21 birds to gain an insight into the species' movements. They discovered that the birds travel large distances inland and gather at the recently filled bodies of water. [30]

The majority of observed breeding events have occurred at inland salt lakes in South Australia and Western Australia immediately following freshwater inflows. An exception to this exists where some breeding was attempted at The Coorong during a time in which salinity in the Lower Lakes was significantly elevated due to reduced environmental flows down the Murray River. [33] Breeding events are initiated by the filling of shallow inland lakes after rainfall and resultant explosion in numbers of food animals such as Parartemia brine shrimp. This can happen at any time of year. [34] Breeding sites are generally on low islands, of 1–1.5 m (3–5 ft) elevation, or spits on or alongside large lakes, [24] on clay or gravel and generally with sparse or no vegetation. [25] The nests themselves are scrapes in the soil, up to 15 cm (5.9 in) across and 3 cm (1 in) deep, with or without some dead vegetation as lining. Birds on stony soils generally gather vegetation instead of digging scrapes. [25]

Egg clutches number three to four (or rarely five) oval eggs, which vary from fawn to white marked with brown to black splotches. They can be 49–58 mm (1.9–2.3 in) long and 35–48 mm (1.4–1.9 in) wide. [25] Incubation takes 19 to 21 days, [20] with both sexes sharing duties, although the male takes over as sole incubator as the eggs hatch and immediately afterwards. This is thought to allow the females to lay and incubate a second brood if the water and food in the lake persists. Parent birds incubate for one to six days before swapping with the other parent. These intervals are much longer than other waders, and thought to be due to the remoteness of food—either the prey are blown to remote corners of the lakes by the wind or the lakes themselves have receded as they have dried. Parents almost always changeover incubating at night, generally within two hours of nightfall, presumably to avoid predators. [34] On hot days with temperatures over 40 °C (104 °F), incubating birds may leave briefly to wet their brood patches to presumably cool the eggs or young. [35] Birds on nests always face into the wind. [36]

The nestlings are born covered in white down—unlike any other waders—and mobile with open eyes (precocial) and leave the nest soon after hatching (nidifugous). [20] Adults lead the young birds to the water by the time they are two days old. Once in the water, they begin to feed on tiny crustaceans. [36]

Nest predators and hazards

Banded stilt colonies suffer greatly from predation by silver gulls (Chroicocephalus novaehollandiae), while wedge-tailed eagles (Aquila audax), white-bellied sea eagles (Haliaeetus leucogaster), spot-bellied eagle-owls (Bubo nipalensis) and black falcons (Falco subniger) also take stilts and young. [34] Premature drying of the lakes leads to parents abandoning their eggs or nestlings, resulting in the deaths of many thousands of young. [20]

Feeding

Parartemia zietziana (male + female), a prey item of the banded stilt Parartemia zietziana.jpg
Parartemia zietziana (male + female), a prey item of the banded stilt

The banded stilt forages by walking or swimming in shallow water, pecking, probing or scything into the water or mud. [37] The bulk of its diet is made up of tiny crustaceans, including branchiopods, ostracods (seed shrimp), anostraca (fairy shrimp) such as Artemia salina and members of the genus Parartemia , both genera of notostraca (tadpole shrimp), and isopods such as the genera Deto and Haloniscus . They also eat molluscs, including both gastropods such as the land snail Salinator fragilis and members of the genus Coxiella , and bivalves of the genus Sphaericum , insects (such as bugs, beetles, flies and flying ants, which they glean from the water surface), and plants such as Ruppia . Small fish such as hardyheads ( Craterocephalus spp.) have also been reportedly eaten. [38]

Status and conservation

In 2016, the banded stilt was rated as least concern on the IUCN Red List of Endangered species. This was on the basis of its large range—greater than 20,000 km2 (7700 mi2)—and fluctuating rather than declining population. [1] However, it is listed as Vulnerable under the South Australian National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 . [39] The listing was made after breeding attempts observed at Lake Eyre revealed heavy predation from silver gulls. The Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources has developed a strategy for managing silver gull predation at chosen banded stilt breeding sites by applying site-specific culling measures. Breeding events observed at ephemeral lakes in Western Australia have proven to be more successful without the need for intervention due to their remoteness. [33]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Australian raven</span> Passerine bird native to Australia

The Australian raven is a passerine bird in the genus Corvus native to much of southern and northeastern Australia. Measuring 46–53 centimetres (18–21 in) in length, it has all-black plumage, beak and mouth, as well as strong grey-black legs and feet. The upperparts are glossy, with a purple, blue, or green sheen, and its black feathers have grey bases. The Australian raven is distinguished from the Australian crow species by its throat hackles, which are prominent in adult birds. Older adult individuals have white irises, younger adults have white irises with an inner blue rim, while younger birds have dark brown irises until fifteen months of age, and hazel irises with an inner blue rim around each pupil until age two years and ten months. Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield described the Australian raven in 1827, its species name (coronoides) highlighting its similarity with the carrion crow. Two subspecies are recognized, which differ slightly in calls and are quite divergent genetically.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Avocet</span> Genus of birds

The four species of avocets are a genus, Recurvirostra, of waders in the same avian family as the stilts. The genus name comes from Latin recurvus, 'curved backwards' and rostrum, 'bill'. The common name is thought to derive from the Italian (Ferrarese) word avosetta. Francis Willughby in 1678 noted it as the "Avosetta of the Italians".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stilt</span> Commons name for several species of bird

Stilt is a common name for several species of birds in the family Recurvirostridae, which also includes those known as avocets. They are found in brackish or saline wetlands in warm or hot climates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pied currawong</span> Medium-sized black passerine bird native to eastern Australia and Lord Howe Island

The pied currawong is a black passerine bird native to eastern Australia and Lord Howe Island. One of three currawong species in the genus Strepera, it is closely related to the butcherbirds and Australian magpie of the family Artamidae. Six subspecies are recognised. It is a robust crowlike bird averaging around 48 cm (19 in) in length, black or sooty grey-black in plumage with white undertail and wing patches, yellow irises, and a heavy bill. The male and female are similar in appearance. Known for its melodious calls, the species' name currawong is believed to be of indigenous origin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Recurvirostridae</span> Family of birds

The Recurvirostridae are a family of birds in the wader suborder Charadrii. It contains two distinct groups of birds, the avocets and the stilts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">American avocet</span> Species of bird

The American avocet is a large wader in the avocet and stilt family, Recurvirostridae, found in North America. It spends much of its time foraging in shallow water or on mud flats, often sweeping its bill from side to side in water as it seeks crustacean and insect prey.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-winged stilt</span> Species of bird

The black-winged stilt is a widely distributed, very long-legged wader in the avocet and stilt family Recurvirostridae. Its scientific name, Himantopus himantopus, is sometimes used to generalize a single, almost cosmopolitan species. Alternatively, it is restricted to the form that is widespread in Europe, Asia and Africa, which equals the nominate group of H. himantopussensu lato. Meanwhile, the black-necked and white-backed stilts both inhabit the Americas; the pied stilt ranges from Australasia and New Zealand. Today, most sources accept between one and four actual species. The taxonomic name Himantopus comes from Greek, meaning "strap-foot" or "thong-foot".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wilson's phalarope</span> Species of bird

Wilson's phalarope is a small wader. This bird, the largest of the phalaropes, breeds in the prairies of North America in western Canada and the western United States. It is migratory, wintering in inland salt lakes near the Andes in Argentina. They are passage migrants through Central America around March/April and again during September/October. The species is a rare vagrant to western Europe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pied avocet</span> Species of bird

The pied avocet is a large black and white wader in the avocet and stilt family, Recurvirostridae. They breed in temperate Europe and across the Palearctic to Central Asia then on to the Russian Far East. It is a migratory species and most winter in Africa or southern Asia. Some remain to winter in the mildest parts of their range, for example in southern Spain and southern England. The pied avocet is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Curlew sandpiper</span> Species of bird

The curlew sandpiper is a small wader that breeds on the tundra of Arctic Siberia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black stilt</span> Species of bird

The black stilt or kakī (Māori) is a wading bird found in New Zealand. It is one of the world's rarest birds, with 169 adults surviving in the wild as of May 2020. Adult kakī have distinctive black plumage, long pink legs, and a long thin black bill. Black stilts largely breed in the Mackenzie Basin in the South Island, and are threatened by introduced feral cats, ferrets, and hedgehogs as well as habitat degradation from hydroelectric dams, agriculture, and invasive weeds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red-necked avocet</span> Species of bird

The red-necked avocet also known as the Australian avocet, cobbler, cobbler's awl, and painted lady, is a wader of the family Recurvirostridae that is endemic to Australia and is fairly common and widespread throughout, except for the north and north east coastal areas of the country. Closely related to the stilts, it shares their fragile slender elegance, however the deep red head and neck distinguish them. It appeared on a 13 cent postage stamp in 1966.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rock parrot</span> Species of bird

The rock parrot is a species of grass parrot native to Australia. Described by John Gould in 1841, it is a small parrot 22 to 24 cm long and weighing 50–60 g with predominantly olive-brown upperparts and more yellowish underparts. Its head is olive with light blue forecheeks and lores, and a dark blue frontal band line across the crown with lighter blue above and below. The sexes are similar in appearance, although the female tends to have a duller frontal band and less blue on the face. Two subspecies are recognised.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inland dotterel</span> Species of bird

The inland dotterel is an endemic bird of the arid Australian interior. It forms loose flocks in sparsely vegetated gibber plain and claypans in the day where it loafs in the shade and eats shoots of shrubs. It is most often encountered at night when it forages on roads for insects. The relative remoteness of its habitat means that it is not well studied. The most detailed observations of the species were made by the South African arid-zone ornithology specialist Gordon Maclean in the 1970s. Alternate English names include Australian plover, inland plover, desert plover and prairie plover.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Andean avocet</span> Species of bird

The Andean avocet is a large wader in the avocet and stilt bird family, Recurvirostridae. It is resident in the Andes, breeding above 3500 m in northwestern Argentina, western Bolivia, northern Chile and southern Peru.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red-capped robin</span> A small passerine bird native to Australia

The red-capped robin is a small passerine bird native to Australia. Found in drier regions across much of the continent, it inhabits scrub and open woodland. Like many brightly coloured robins of the family Petroicidae, it is sexually dimorphic. Measuring 10.5–12.5 cm (4.1–4.9 in) in length, the robin has a small, thin, black bill, and dark brown eyes and legs. The male has a distinctive red cap and red breast, black upperparts, and a black tail with white tips. The underparts and shoulders are white. The female is an undistinguished grey-brown. This species uses a variety of songs, and males generally sing to advertise territories and attract females. Birds are encountered in pairs or small groups, but the social behaviour has been little studied.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western gerygone</span> Species of bird

The western gerygone is a small, brownish-grey species of passerine bird, which is found in inland and south-west Australia. It is an arboreal, insectivore of open forest, woodland and dry shrubland. It is not currently threatened with extinction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-necked stilt</span> Species of bird

The black-necked stilt is a locally abundant shorebird of American wetlands and coastlines. It is found from the coastal areas of California through much of the interior western United States and along the Gulf of Mexico as far east as Florida, then south through Central America and the Caribbean to Brazil, Peru and the Galápagos Islands, with an isolated population, the Hawaiian stilt, in Hawaii. The northernmost populations, particularly those from inland, are migratory, wintering from the extreme south of the United States to southern Mexico, rarely as far south as Costa Rica; on the Baja California peninsula it is only found regularly in winter. Some authorities, including the IUCN, treat it as a synonym of Himantopus himantopus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Purple-backed fairywren</span> Species of bird

The purple-backed fairywren is a fairywren that is native to Australia. Described by Alfred John North in 1901, it has four recognised subspecies. In a species that exhibits sexual dimorphism, the brightly coloured breeding male has chestnut shoulders and azure crown and ear coverts, while non-breeding males, females and juveniles have predominantly grey-brown plumage, although females of two subspecies have mainly blue-grey plumage. Distributed over much of the Australian continent, the purple-backed fairywren is found in scrubland with plenty of vegetation providing dense cover.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gawler bioregion</span> Region in South Australia

Gawler is an interim Australian bioregion located in South Australia. It has an area of 12,002,883 hectares. Gawler bioregion is part of the Tirari–Sturt stony desert ecoregion.

References

  1. 1 2 BirdLife International (2016). "Cladorhynchus leucocephalus". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2016: e.T22693709A93418535. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22693709A93418535.en . Downloaded on 17 February 2018.
  2. 1 2 3 Australian Biological Resources Study (1 March 2012). "Species Cladorhynchus leucocephalus (Vieillot, 1816)". Australian Faunal Directory. Canberra, Australian Capital Territory: Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian Government. Retrieved 21 June 2015.
  3. ↑ Vieillot, Louis Pierre (1816). Nouveau Dictionnaire d'Histoire Naturelle, appliquée aux arts, à l'Agriculture, à l'Écomomie rurale et domestique, à la Médecine, etc. Par une société de naturalistes et d'agriculteurs (in French). Vol. 3. Paris, France: Chez Deterville. p. 103.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Higgins 1993, p. 780.
  5. ↑ Cuvier, Georges (1816). Le règne animal distribué d'après son organisation: pour servir de base à l'histoire naturelle des animaux et d'introduction à l'anatomie comparée. L'introduction, les mammifères et les oiseaux (in French). Vol. 1. Paris, France: Chez Deterville. p. 496.
  6. ↑ Du Bus, V.B.L. (1835). "Académie Royale des Sciences et Belles-Lettres de Bruxelles. Séance du 15 décembre. Lectures. Ornithologie. L'Académie ordonne l'insertion dans son Bulletin de la notice suivante, contenant la Description d'un nouveau genre d'oiseau de l'ordre des eschassiers; notice qui lui a été presentée dans sa séance du 17 janvier dernier par M. le chevalier B. Du Bus, et sur la quelle un rapport a été lu à la séance du 7 mars. Genre Leptorhynque, – Leptorhynchus". Bulletin de l'Académie Royale de Bruxelles (in French). ii: 419–22.
  7. ↑ Gray, George Robert (1840). A list of the genera of birds, with an indication of the typical species of each genus (2nd ed.). London, United Kingdom: John E. Taylor. p.  89. Cladorhynchus G.R. Gray, 1840.
  8. ↑ Gistel, Johannes von Nepomuk Franz Xaver (1848). Naturgeschichte des Thierreichs : für höhere Schulen (in German). Stuttgart, Germany: Scheitlin & Krais. p. ix.
  9. ↑ Gould, John (1865). Handbook to the birds of Australia. Vol. 2. London, United Kingdom: self-published. pp. 248–49.
  10. ↑ Sturt, Charles (1848). "Appendix". Expedition Into Central Australia. London, United Kingdom: T. and W. Boone. ISBN   978-1-4655-2450-8.
  11. ↑ Reichenbach, H. G. Ludwig (1845). Die neuentdeckten Vögel Neuhollands, nach Vergleichung von Exemplaren beschrieben, und in ihrer zum Theil höchst merkwürdigen Lebens- und Fortpflanzungsgeschichte nach den neuesten Beobachtungen von Gould, Gilbert u. a. geschildert (in German). Dresden, Germany: Expedition der vollständigsten Naturgeschichte. p. 28.
  12. 1 2 Lawson Whitlock, Frederick Bulstrode (1904). "A visit to Rottnest Island". Emu. 4 (3): 129–32. doi:10.1071/MU904129.
  13. ↑ Mathews, Gregory M. (1913). The List of the Birds of Australia. London, United Kingdom: Witherby. pp. 61–62.
  14. ↑ Strauch, Joseph G. (1978). "The phylogeny of the Charadriiformes (Aves): a new estimate using the method of character compatibility analysis" (PDF). Transactions of the Zoological Society of London. 34 (3): 263–345. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1978.tb00375.x. hdl: 2027.42/72525 .
  15. ↑ Chu, Philip C. (1995). "Phylogenetic reanalysis of Strauch's osteological data set for the Charadriiformes". The Condor. 97 (1): 174–96. doi:10.2307/1368995. JSTOR   1368995. S2CID   53558095.
  16. ↑ Thomas, Gavin H.; Wills, Matthew A.; Székely, Tamás (2004). "A supertree approach to shorebird phylogeny". BMC Evolutionary Biology . 4: 28. doi: 10.1186/1471-2148-4-28 . PMC   515296 . PMID   15329156. Supplementary Material
  17. ↑ Latham, John (1824). A General History of Birds. Vol. 10. Winchester, United Kingdom: Jacob and Johnson. p. 41.
  18. ↑ Gill, Frank; Donsker, David, eds. (2019). "Grebes, flamingos, buttonquail, plovers, painted-snipes, jacanas, plains-wanderer, seedsnipes". World Bird List Version 9.2. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 26 June 2019.
  19. ↑ Clarke, P.A. (2003). "Twentieth Century Aboriginal Harvesting Practices in the Rural Landscape of the Lower Murray, South Australia". Records of the South Australian Museum. 36 (1): 83–107.
  20. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Higgins 1993, p. 787.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 Higgins 1993, p. 788.
  22. 1 2 Campbell, Iain; Woods, Sam; Leseberg, Nick (2015). Birds of Australia: A Photographic Guide. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 138. ISBN   978-0-691-15727-6.
  23. 1 2 3 Higgins 1993, p. 789.
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Higgins 1993, p. 781.
  25. 1 2 3 4 Higgins 1993, p. 786.
  26. ↑ "Goldfields deluge attracts thousands of breeding banded stilts". PerthNow. News Ltd. 21 February 2014.
  27. ↑ Carnaby, Ivan.C. (1933). "The Birds of the Lake Grace District, W.A.". Emu. 33 (2): 103–09. doi:10.1071/MU933103.
  28. ↑ Elder, John (11 July 2010). "Rain's blessing: stilt chicks take their first steps". Sydney Morning Herald.
  29. ↑ Alcorn, Margaret; Alcorn, Richard (2000). "Seasonal migration of banded Stilt Cladorhynchus leucocephalus to the Natimuk Douglas salt-pans in the Western Victoria, Australia" (PDF). The Stilt. 36: 7–10. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 March 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2017.
  30. 1 2 Pedler, Reece D.; Ribot, R. F. H.; Bennett, A.T. D. (2014). "Extreme nomadism in desert waterbirds: flights of the banded stilt". Biology Letters. 10 (10): 20140547. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2014.0547. PMC   4272204 . PMID   25319819.
  31. ↑ Higgins 1993, p. 784.
  32. ↑ Brewin, Rebecca (23 October 2014). "Unlocking the mysterious movements of the banded stilt". ABC Goldfields. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 4 March 2017.
  33. 1 2 Hollands, David (2012). Waders: the shorebirds of Australia. Melbourne, Victoria: Bloomings Books Pty Ltd. ISBN   978-1-876473-80-8.
  34. 1 2 3 Pedler, Reece M.; Weston, Michael A.; Bennett, Andrew T.D. (2016). "Long incubation bouts and biparental incubation in the nomadic Banded Stilt". Emu. 116 (1): 75–80. doi:10.1071/MU15061. S2CID   86022850.
  35. ↑ Higgins 1993, pp. 786–87.
  36. 1 2 Higgins 1993, p. 785.
  37. ↑ Higgins 1993, p. 783.
  38. ↑ Higgins 1993, pp. 783–84.
  39. ↑ Attorney General's Department (2013). "National Parks & Wildlife Act 1972". South Australian Legislation. Government of South Australia. Retrieved 23 January 2014.

Cited text

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.