Chemical castration

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Chemical castration is castration via anaphrodisiac drugs, whether to reduce libido and sexual activity, to treat cancer, or otherwise. Unlike surgical castration, where the gonads are removed through an incision in the body, [1] chemical castration does not remove organs and is not a form of sterilization. [2]

Contents

Chemical castration is generally reversible when treatment is discontinued, [3] although permanent effects in body chemistry can sometimes be seen, as in the case of bone density loss increasing with length of use of depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA). In men, chemical castration reduces sex drive and the capacity for sexual arousal, side effects of some drugs may include depression, suicidal ideation, hot flashes, anemia, infertility, increase in body fat and higher risks of cardiovascular diseases and osteoporosis. In women, chemical castration acts by decreasing testosterone levels in order to lower their sex drive, side effects include the deflation of breast glands, expansion of the size of the nipple and shrinking of bone mass.

In some jurisdictions, chemical castration has been used to reduce the libido of sexual offenders. [4] The effectiveness of chemical castration in decreasing recidivism among sex offenders is controversial.

Effects

On males

When used on males, these drugs can reduce sex drive, sexual fantasies, and capacity for sexual arousal. Life-threatening side effects are rare, but some users show increases in body fat and reduced bone density, which increase long-term risk of cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis, respectively. Males may also experience gynecomastia (development of larger-than-normal mammary glands in males); full development is less common unless chemical castration is combined with feminizing oestrogen therapy. [5]

Some drugs, such as medroxyprogesterone acetate, cyproterone acetate and LHRH agonists can decrease serum testosterone and estradiol in the body, thus impairing the metabolism of glucose and lipid. These drugs can also cause depression, hot flashes, infertility and anemia, aside from cardiovascular diseases and osteoporosis. The risk of side effects caused by chemical castration drugs can increase depending on the length of time under which they are administered. [6] A 2004 study in which eleven men were chemically castrated ended with one committing suicide after one year of treatment; [7] in another 2020 study, increases in suicidal ideations was reported by 8% of its treatment group, which led to the hospitalization of two of the 25 subjects who had been administered degarelix. [8] [9]

On females

When used on females, the effects are similar, though there is little research about chemically lowering female's sex drive or female-specific anaphrodisiacs, since most research focuses on the opposite, but anti-androgenic hormone regimens would lower testosterone in females which can impact sex drive or sexual response. [10] [11] [12] These drugs also deflate the breast glands and expand the size of the nipple. Also seen is a sudden shrinking in bone mass and discoloration of the lips, [13] [14] reduced body hair, [15] and muscle mass. [16]

Treatment for sex offenders

The first use of chemical castration occurred in 1944, when diethylstilbestrol was used with the purpose of lowering men's testosterone. [17] The antipsychotic agent benperidol was sometimes used to decrease sexual urges in people who displayed what was thought of as inappropriate sexual behavior, and as likewise given by depot injection, though benperidol does not affect testosterone and is therefore not a castration agent. Chemical castration was often seen as an easier alternative to life imprisonment or the death penalty because it allowed the release of the convicted. [18]

In 1981, in an experiment by Pierre Gagné, 48 males with long-standing histories of sexually deviant behaviour were given medroxyprogesterone acetate for as long as 12 months. Forty of those subjects were recorded as having diminished desires for deviant sexual behaviour, as well as less frequent sexual fantasies and greater control over sexual urges. The research recorded a continuation of this improved behaviour after the administration of the drug had ended, with no evidence of adverse side effects, and so recommended medroxyprogesterone acetate along with counselling as a successful method of treatment for serial sex offenders. [19]

Leuprolide acetate is an LHRH agonist that is most commonly used in chemical castration today. [20] This drug has been observed as having higher rates of success in reducing abnormal sexual urges and fantasies, but is often reserved for those offenders who are at a high risk of reoffending due to the drug's intense effects. [21]

Psychotherapy has also recently been used in conjunction with chemical castration in order to maximize and prolong the beneficial results. [22] Schober et al. reported in 2005 that when cognitive behavioral therapy combined with leuprolide acetetate was compared to cognitive behavioral therapy alone, the combination therapy produced a much more significant reduction of pedophilic fantasies and urges as well as masturbation. [23] Chemical castration therapy reduces an individual's libido which then makes some offenders more responsive to the introduction of psychotherapy. [24] This combination therapy is most often utilized in those who are at a high risk of offending. [22]

Offering criminals the option of chemical castration for a reduction in sentence is an example of compulsory sterilization [25] as it can leave a subject sterile if they are required to continue treatment for more than 3 years. [6]

Scientific critique

Some criminologists argue that the appearance of a lower recidivism rate in male sex offenders who take chemical castration treatment than in those who do not can be explained by factors other than biological effects of the medication. One hypothesis is that men who accept the negative effects of hormonal treatment in exchange for shorter prison sentence are distinct in that they value freedom from incarceration higher than men who rather stay in prison for a longer time than face the side effects of chemical castration. These criminologists explain apparently lower recidivism as an artifact of men who accept chemical castration being more engaged in hiding the evidence for reoffending, and that paroling such offenders constitute a risk of releasing criminals who commit as many new crimes as others but are better at hiding it. These criminologists also argue that police investigators treating castrated men as less likely to reoffend than non-castrated men may cause an investigation bias and self-fulfilling prophecy, and that men who sell some of their prescribed medicines on the black market for drugs get a hidden income that improves their ability to afford measures to hide recidivism that is not available to men without such prescriptions. [26] [27] [28]

Some neurologists acknowledge that testosterone plays a role in sexual arousal but consider that reducing sex drive will likely not reduce inappropriate sex behaviour. These researchers argue that since a weaker internal signal in the brain means a higher requirement for external stimulation to create a feedback loop that tires the brain circuits out as in orgasm and lead to satisfaction, a reduction of the internal stimulation from hormones would make the required external stimulation stronger and also more specific, as weaker signals involve narrower ranges of other brain functions in their loops. These scientists therefore argue that the biological (as opposed to sociological) effect of reduced testosterone is to make it more difficult and not easier to use masturbation without pornography or other socially acceptable substitutes to manage remaining sex drive in a former offender, and that many community persons (both male and female) find that a lower initial arousal makes it more difficult to orgasm by masturbation without pornography or with non-preferred stimulation. [29] [30]

Chemical castration by country

Africa

South Africa

In July 2022, a proposed policy of chemical castration for rapists was introduced at the national policy conference of the ruling party, the African National Congress, by the party's Women's League. [31]

Americas

Argentina

In March 2010, Guillermo Fontana of CNN reported that officials in Mendoza, a province in Argentina, approved the use of voluntary chemical castration for rapists, in return for reduced sentences. [32]

United States

In 1966, John Money became the first American to employ chemical castration by prescribing medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) as a treatment for a "Bisexual transvestite with pedophiliac homosexual incest" who was in 'treatment' after their wife informed Money about them having sexually abused their 6-year-old son. [33] The drug has thereafter become a mainstay of chemical castration in America. Despite having been extensively used in the United States for the purpose of decreasing sexual impulses, the drug has never been approved by the FDA for use as a treatment for sexual offenders. [17]

California was the first U.S. state to specify the use of chemical castration for repeat child molesters as a condition of their parole, following the passage of a modification to Section 645 of the California penal code in 1996. [34] [35] This law stipulates castration for anyone convicted of child molestation with a minor under 13 years of age if they are on parole after their second offense. Offenders may not reject the intervention, [34] [35] [36] [37] although they may elect surgical castration instead of ongoing DMPA injections. [38]

The passage of this law led to similar laws in other states such as Florida's Statute Section 794.0235 which was passed into law in 1997. [39]

At least seven other states, including Georgia, Iowa, Louisiana, Montana, Oregon, Texas and Wisconsin, have experimented with chemical castration. [17] In Iowa, as in California and Florida, offenders may be sentenced to chemical castration in all cases involving serious sex offenses. On June 25, 2008, following the Supreme Court ruling in Kennedy v. Louisiana that the execution of child rapists where the victim was not killed was ruled unconstitutional, [40] Louisiana Governor Bobby Jindal signed Senate Bill 144, allowing Louisiana judges to sentence convicted rapists to chemical castration. [41] [42] [43] Alabama passed such a law in 2019. [44]

The American Civil Liberties Union of Florida opposes the administration of any drug that is dangerous or has significant irreversible effect as an alternative to incarceration; however, they do not oppose the use of antiandrogen drugs for sex offenders under carefully controlled circumstances as an alternative to incarceration. [41] Law professor John Stinneford has argued that chemical castration is a cruel and unusual punishment because it exerts control over the mind of sex offenders to render them incapable of sexual desire and subjects them to the physical changes caused by the hormones used. [45]

Some people have argued that, based on the 14th Amendment, the procedure fails to guarantee equal protection: although the laws mandating the treatment do so without respect to gender, the actual effect of the procedure disproportionately falls upon men. [17] In the case of voluntary statutes, the ability to give informed consent is also an issue; in 1984, the U.S. state of Michigan's court of appeals held that mandating chemical castration as a condition of probation was unlawful on the grounds that the drug medroxyprogesterone acetate had not yet gained acceptance as being safe and reliable and also due to the difficulty of obtaining informed consent under these circumstances. [17]

Asia

India

After the outrage following the gang rape of a woman in Delhi, the Government has submitted a draft proposing chemical castration along with an imprisonment of up to 30 years for rape convicts as part of the anti-rape law in India. The ministry is preparing a detailed bill and the recommended changes are under review. [46] [47] Government is also planning to re-define the Juvenile Act and lower their age. One of the accused in the rape case is a juvenile and aged a few months less than 18 years. A view has been expressed by a section that only those below 15 years should be described as juvenile. [48] [49]

Indonesia

In 2016, the Indonesian President Joko Widodo introduced a presidential regulation (Government Regulation in Lieu of Law No.1/2016) to allow chemical castration to be handed down as a punishment to child sex offenders. The regulation alters the contents of the 2002 Law on Child Protection (Law No. 23 of 2002). [4] DPR later enacted the regulation and amended the law (Law No. 17 of 2016) to enable chemical castration. [50] Although, a convicted child sex offender convicted in 2019 and eligible to be castrated chemically, the technical details on how the punishment will be carried out was under debate between the Government and Indonesian Physicians Association, resulting the sentence suspended until the technical details made. [51] On 7 December 2020, government finally issued Government Regulation No. 70/2020, that detailing technical details on how chemical castration carried out. The chemical castration punishment carried by specifically appointed physician in central government-run or local government-run hospital, and witnessed by witnesses from Attorney General, Ministry of Law and Human Rights, Ministry of Social Affairs, and Ministry of Health. The drugs used for the sentence however, not declared in the government regulation. The government regulation also authorized Ministry of Law and Human Rights to issue regulation to notify the Attorney General, and Ministry of Health to compile the technical procedure for the clinical assessment, conclusion, and implementation. [52]

Israel

In May 2009, two brothers from Haifa—convicted child molesters—agreed to undergo chemical castration to avoid committing further crimes. [53]

Pakistan

In 2020, Pakistan's Prime Minister Imran Khan told a journalist that he would prefer that rapists and child molesters be publicly hanged, but he added that, because he imagined that such capital punishment would gain negative attention for Pakistan on the international stage, he would instead like such offenders to "undergo chemical castration, or surgery be performed so they cannot do anything in future." [54] The Anti-Rape Ordinance 2020, approved by President Arif Alvi in December 2020, [55] allows for chemical castration of rapists without the consent of the offender. [56] Lawmakers gave it permanent approval in November 2021. [57]

South Korea

In July 2011, South Korea enacted a law allowing judges the power to sentence sex offenders who have attacked children under the age of 16 to chemical castration. [58] The law also allows for chemical castration to be ordered by a Ministry of Justice committee. On May 23, 2012, a serial sex offender legally called Park in the court case was ordered by the committee to undergo this treatment after his most recent attempted offense. On January 3, 2013, a South Korean court sentenced a 31-year-old man to 15 years in jail and chemical castration, the country's first-ever chemical castration sentence. [59] [60] In 2017, the sentencing was extended to include all forms of rapes and sexual assault cases against women, including attempted rape.

Europe

Legislation allowing chemical castration exists in France, the United Kingdom, Poland, Russia, North Macedonia, Belgium and Turkey. [61] : 16  The drug cyproterone acetate has been commonly used for chemical castration throughout Europe. It resembles the drug MPA used in America. [17]

Estonia

On June 5, 2012, Estonia passed a law that allows voluntary chemical castration as a part of complex treatment for less serious sex offenders as an alternative of imprisonment. However, the treatment is rarely used in practice. [62]

Germany

In the 1960s, German physicians used antiandrogens as a treatment for sexual paraphilia. [17]

Moldova

On March 6, 2012, Moldova legislated forcible chemical castration of child molesters; the law came into effect on July 1, 2012. [63]

North Macedonia

In October and November 2013, North Macedonia authorities were working on developing a legal framework and standard procedure for implementation of chemical castration that would be used for convicted child molesters. The castration is intended to be voluntarily, where as for the child molesters that repeat the criminal act it should be mandatory. [64]

Poland

On September 25, 2009, Poland legislated forcible chemical castration of child molesters. [65] This law came into effect on June 9, 2010; therefore in Poland "anyone guilty of raping a child under the age of 15 can now be forced to submit to chemical and psychological therapy to reduce sex drive at the end of a prison term". [66]

Portugal

In 2008, an experimental intervention program was launched in three Portuguese prisons: Carregueira (Belas, Sintra), Paços de Ferreira and Funchal. The program developers note the voluntary nature of the program a crucial factor in its success. They initially planned to cover ten inmates per prison, contemplating a possible enlargement to other prisons in the future. The program also included a rehabilitation component. [67]

In 2021, The right-wing populist Chega party pushed for a chemical castration bill in parliament. [68]

Russia

In October 2011, the Russian parliament approved a law that allows a court-requested forensic psychiatrist to prescribe the chemical castration of convicted sex offenders who have harmed children under the age of 14.[ citation needed ]

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, computer scientist Alan Turing, famous for his contributions to mathematics and computer science, pleaded guilty in 1952 to a charge of gross indecency for engaging in homosexual acts and accepted chemical castration as a term of his probation, thus avoiding imprisonment. [69] At the time, homosexual acts between males were illegal and homosexual orientation was widely considered to be a mental illness that could be treated with chemical castration. [69] Turing experienced side effects such as gynecomastia (breast enlargement) [70] and bloating of the physique. [69] He died two years later, with the inquest returning a verdict of suicide. [71] In 2009 British Prime Minister Gordon Brown issued a public apology for the "appalling" treatment of Turing after an online petition gained 30,000 signatures and international recognition. [72] He was given a posthumous Royal Pardon in December 2013.

A law allowing voluntary chemical castration was created in the UK in 2007 by then home secretary John Reid. [73]

On April 30, 2010, a 30-year-old man in the United Kingdom found guilty of attempting to murder a 60-year-old woman in order to abduct and rape her two granddaughters (aged eight and two) agreed to undergo chemical castration as part of the terms of his sentence. He was jailed for a minimum of 10 years at the High Court in Glasgow. [74]

Oceania

Australia

In 2010, a 58-year-old repeat child sex offender who had been subject to chemical castration was accused of inappropriately touching and kissing a seven-year-old young girl. He was found not guilty by a jury, which was not informed of the context of his previous offenses. [75]

New Zealand

In New Zealand, the antilibidinal drug cyproterone acetate is sold under the name Androcur. In November 2000 convicted child sex offender Robert Jason Dittmer attacked a victim while on the drug. In 2009 a study into the effectiveness of the drug by Dr David Wales for the Corrections Department found that no research had been conducted in New Zealand into the effectiveness and such trials were "ethically and practically very difficult to carry out." [76]

Treatment of cancer

A major medical use of chemical castration is in the treatment of hormone-dependent cancers, such as some prostate cancer, where it has largely replaced the practice of surgical castration. [77] [78] In 2020 a man in Canada who was receiving antiandrogen drug treatment for colon cancer murdered his doctor over the belief that they were chemically castrating him due to his race.

Chemical castration involves the administration of antiandrogen drugs, such as cyproterone acetate, flutamide, or gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antiandrogen</span> Class of pharmaceutical drugs

Antiandrogens, also known as androgen antagonists or testosterone blockers, are a class of drugs that prevent androgens like testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) from mediating their biological effects in the body. They act by blocking the androgen receptor (AR) and/or inhibiting or suppressing androgen production. They can be thought of as the functional opposites of AR agonists, for instance androgens and anabolic steroids (AAS) like testosterone, DHT, and nandrolone and selective androgen receptor modulators (SARMs) like enobosarm. Antiandrogens are one of three types of sex hormone antagonists, the others being antiestrogens and antiprogestogens.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Progestogen (medication)</span> Medication producing effects similar to progesterone

A progestogen, also referred to as a progestagen, gestagen, or gestogen, is a type of medication which produces effects similar to those of the natural female sex hormone progesterone in the body. A progestin is a synthetic progestogen. Progestogens are used most commonly in hormonal birth control and menopausal hormone therapy. They can also be used in the treatment of gynecological conditions, to support fertility and pregnancy, to lower sex hormone levels for various purposes, and for other indications. Progestogens are used alone or in combination with estrogens. They are available in a wide variety of formulations and for use by many different routes of administration. Examples of progestogens include natural or bioidentical progesterone as well as progestins such as medroxyprogesterone acetate and norethisterone.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leuprorelin</span> Manufactured (artificial) injectable hormone

Leuprorelin, also known as leuprolide, is a manufactured version of a hormone used to treat prostate cancer, breast cancer, endometriosis, uterine fibroids, for early puberty, or as part of transgender hormone therapy. It is given by injection into a muscle or under the skin.

An anaphrodisiac is a substance that quells or blunts the libido. It is the opposite of an aphrodisiac, something that enhances sexual appetite. The word anaphrodisiac comes from the Greek privative prefix ἀν-, denoting negation, and aphrodisiac, from the Greek goddess of love, Aphrodite. Some people use anaphrodisiacs in order to curb a very high libido or due to hypersexuality. However anaphrodisiacs are also used by those with an average libido, at times due to having incessant schedules.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Triptorelin</span> GnRH-agonist

Triptorelin, sold under the brand name Decapeptyl among others, is a medication that acts as an agonist analog of gonadotropin-releasing hormone, repressing expression of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist</span> Drug class affecting sex hormones

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chlormadinone acetate</span> Chemical compound

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Medroxyprogesterone acetate</span> Injectable form of birth control

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Androgen deprivation therapy</span> Hormonal treatment for prostate cancer

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Sexual motivation is influenced by hormones such as testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, oxytocin, and vasopressin. In most mammalian species, sex hormones control the ability and motivation to engage in sexual behaviours.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cyproterone acetate</span> Chemical compound

Cyproterone acetate (CPA), sold alone under the brand name Androcur or with ethinylestradiol under the brand names Diane or Diane-35 among others, is an antiandrogen and progestin medication used in the treatment of androgen-dependent conditions such as acne, excessive body hair growth, early puberty, and prostate cancer, as a component of feminizing hormone therapy for transgender individuals, and in birth control pills. It is formulated and used both alone and in combination with an estrogen. CPA is taken by mouth one to three times per day.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Steroidal antiandrogen</span> Class of compounds

A steroidal antiandrogen (SAA) is an antiandrogen with a steroidal chemical structure. They are typically antagonists of the androgen receptor (AR) and act both by blocking the effects of androgens like testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) and by suppressing gonadal androgen production. SAAs lower concentrations of testosterone through simulation of the negative feedback inhibition of the hypothalamus. SAAs are used in the treatment of androgen-dependent conditions in men and women, and are also used in veterinary medicine for the same purpose. They are the converse of nonsteroidal antiandrogens (NSAAs), which are antiandrogens that are not steroids and are structurally unrelated to testosterone.

The medical uses of bicalutamide, a nonsteroidal antiandrogen (NSAA), include the treatment of androgen-dependent conditions and hormone therapy to block the effects of androgens. Indications for bicalutamide include the treatment of prostate cancer in men, skin and hair conditions such as acne, seborrhea, hirsutism, and pattern hair loss in women, high testosterone levels in women, hormone therapy in transgender women, as a puberty blocker to prevent puberty in transgender girls and to treat early puberty in boys, and the treatment of long-lasting erections in men. It may also have some value in the treatment of paraphilias and hypersexuality in men.

A sex-hormonal agent, also known as a sex-hormone receptor modulator, is a type of hormonal agent which specifically modulates the effects of sex hormones and of their biological targets, the sex hormone receptors. The sex hormones include androgens such as testosterone, estrogens such as estradiol, and progestogens such as progesterone. Sex-hormonal agents may be either steroidal or nonsteroidal in chemical structure and may serve to either enhance, inhibit, or have mixed effects on the function of the sex hormone systems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pharmacology of cyproterone acetate</span>

The pharmacology of cyproterone acetate (CPA) concerns the pharmacology of the steroidal antiandrogen and progestin medication cyproterone acetate.

The side effects of cyproterone acetate (CPA), a steroidal antiandrogen and progestin, including its frequent and rare side effects, have been studied and characterized. It is generally well-tolerated and has a mild side-effect profile, regardless of dosage, when it used as a progestin or antiandrogen in combination with an estrogen such as ethinylestradiol or estradiol valerate in women. Side effects of CPA include hypogonadism and associated symptoms such as demasculinization, sexual dysfunction, infertility, and osteoporosis; breast changes such as breast tenderness, enlargement, and gynecomastia; emotional changes such as fatigue and depression; and other side effects such as vitamin B12 deficiency, weak glucocorticoid effects, and elevated liver enzymes. Weight gain can occur with CPA when it is used at high doses. Some of the side effects of CPA can be improved or fully prevented if it is combined with an estrogen to prevent estrogen deficiency. Few quantitative data are available on many of the potential side effects of CPA. Pooled tolerability data for CPA is not available in the literature.

References

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  16. ↑ Can drugs help sex offenders? by Clare Murphy for the BBC, 13 June 2007
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Castration of Sex Offenders: Prisoners’ Rights Versus Public Safety" Archived 2011-09-28 at the Wayback Machine Charles L. Scott, MD, and Trent Holmberg, MD
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  19. ↑ Gagné, Pierre (May 1981). "Treatment of sex offenders with medroxyprogesterone acetate". American Journal of Psychiatry. 138 (5): 644–646. doi:10.1176/ajp.138.5.644. PMID   6453536.
  20. ↑ Silvani, Mauro; Mondaini, Nicola; Zucchi, Alessandro (30 September 2015). "Androgen deprivation therapy (castration therapy) and pedophilia: What's new". Archivio Italiano di Urologia e Andrologia. 87 (3): 222–6. doi: 10.4081/aiua.2015.3.222 . hdl: 11568/1073189 . PMID   26428645.
  21. ↑ Turner, Daniel; Briken, Peer (January 2018). "Treatment of Paraphilic Disorders in Sexual Offenders or Men With a Risk of Sexual Offending With Luteinizing Hormone-Releasing Hormone Agonists: An Updated Systematic Review". The Journal of Sexual Medicine. 15 (1): 77–93. doi: 10.1016/j.jsxm.2017.11.013 . PMID   29289377.
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  23. ↑ Beech, Anthony R.; Harkins, Leigh (November 2012). "DSM-IV paraphilia: Descriptions, demographics and treatment interventions". Aggression and Violent Behavior. 17 (6): 527–539. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2012.07.008.
  24. ↑ Garcia, Frederico Duarte; Delavenne, Heloise Garcia; Assumpção, Alessandra de Fátima Almeida; Thibaut, Florence (10 April 2013). "Pharmacologic Treatment of Sex Offenders With Paraphilic Disorder". Current Psychiatry Reports. 15 (5): 356. doi:10.1007/s11920-013-0356-5. PMID   23572328. S2CID   11940516.
  25. ↑ Ginzberg, Janet F. (Fall 1992). "NOTE: COMPULSORY CONTRACEPTION AS A CONDITION OF PROBATION: THE USE AND ABUSE OF NORPLANT". Brooklyn Law Review. 58.
  26. ↑ Horne, Christine; Lovaglia, Michael J. (2008). Experiments in criminology and law: a research revolution. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN   978-0-7425-6027-7.[ page needed ]
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  29. ↑ Berridge, Kent C.; Kringelbach, Morten L. (May 2015). "Pleasure Systems in the Brain". Neuron. 86 (3): 646–664. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.018. PMC   4425246 . PMID   25950633.
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  31. ↑ Zimasa Matiwane (July 31, 2022). "ANCWL again proposes castration for rapists". TimesLIVE .
  32. ↑ Fontana, Guillermo (March 20, 2010). "Argentina province OKs chemical castration for rapists". CNN .
  33. ↑ Money, John (August 1970). "Use of an Androgen-Depleting Hormone in the treatment of male sex offenders∗". The Journal of Sex Research. 6 (3): 165–172. doi:10.1080/00224497009550662. ISSN   0022-4499.
  34. 1 2 "XII. SEX OFFENDERS: Children and minors". California State Senate. Archived from the original on 2005-03-22. Retrieved 2006-11-23. The web page notes the Chemical Castration clause as a repeal and an addition to Section 645.
  35. 1 2 "California child molesters could face chemical castration". CNN. 1996-08-29. Archived from the original on 2006-10-20. Retrieved 2006-11-23.
  36. ↑ "Codes Display Text". leginfo.legislature.ca.gov. Retrieved 17 June 2018.
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  38. ↑ Panati, Charles (1998). Sexy Origins and Intimate Things: The Rites and Rituals of Straights, Gays, Bi's, Drags, Trans, Virgins, and Others. New York: Penguin. p. 483.
  39. ↑ Spalding, Larry Helm (1998). "Florida's 1997 Chemical Castration Law: A Return to the Dark Ages" (PDF). Florida State University Law Review . 25 (2): 117–139. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-06-13.
  40. ↑ Rossmeier, Vincent (June 26, 2008). "Jindal approves castration for sex offenders". Salon . Salon Media Group. Archived from the original on November 16, 2013. Retrieved October 20, 2013. On Wednesday, the Supreme Court ruled that it's unconstitutional to execute someone for a case of child rape "where the victim's life was not taken." [...]
  41. 1 2 Spalding, Larry Helm (Winter 1998). "Florida's 1997 Chemical Castration Law: A Return to the Dark Ages". Florida State University Law Review. 25 (117): 124. Archived from the original on September 17, 2017. Retrieved March 15, 2016. Furthermore, the ACLU of Florida opposes any attempt to offer a defendant the opportunity to avoid incarceration by taking a drug that is dangerous or that has a significant irreversible effect on an individual's cognitive capacity or an important physical function, such as the ability to conceive children. The ACLU of Florida does not oppose the use of antiandrogen drugs under certain controlled circumstances as an alternative to incarceration for convicted sex offenders. Because the ACLU of Florida respects individual autonomy and supports the principle that punishment should be no more restrictive of liberty than necessary, an individual's choice of whether to accept an antiandrogen drug is entitled to considerable respect. In addition, because this choice arises in the inherently coercive context of sentencing, and because of the capacity for abuse of this sentencing option, such treatment should be available only under the most carefully controlled circumstances.
  42. ↑ "Code 2009 Index". coolice.legis.state.ia.us. Retrieved 16 September 2017.
  43. ↑ "Statutes & Constitution :View Statutes :->2006->Ch0794->Section 0235 : Online Sunshine". state.fl.us.
  44. ↑ "Alabama becomes seventh state to approve castration for some sex offenses". NBC News. 11 June 2019. Retrieved 2019-06-11.
  45. ↑ Stinneford, John F. (20 July 2006). "Incapacitation through Maiming: Chemical Castration, the Eighth Amendment, and the Denial of Human Dignity". University of St. Thomas Law Journal (6–25). SSRN   918271.
  46. ↑ Press Trust of India (30 December 2012). "Cong draft anti-rape law proposes chemical castration". business-standard.com.
  47. ↑ "Congress anti-rape law draft proposes chemical castration". IBNLive. Archived from the original on 2012-12-31.
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  50. ↑ Government of Indonesia (25 May 2016). "Undang-undang Nomor 17 Tahun 2016: Penetapan Peraturan Pemerintah Pengganti Undang-undang Nomor 1 Tahun 2016 Tentang Perubahan Kedua Atas Undang-undang Nomor 23 Tahun 2002 Tentang Perlindungan Anak Menjadi Undang-undang (Law No. 17 of 2016: Enactment of Government Regulation in Lieu of Law No. 1 of 2016 Re: Second Amendment of Law No. 23 of 2002 Becoming Law)" (PDF). Retrieved 3 January 2021.
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  52. ↑ Government of Indonesia (7 December 2020). "Peraturan Pemerintah No. 70/2020: Tata Cara Pelaksanaan Tindakan Kebiri Kimia, Pemasangan Alat Pendeteksi Elektronik, Rehabilitasi, dan Pengumuman Identitas Pelaku Kekerasan Seksual Terhadap Anak (Government Regulation No. 70/2020: Procedures for Implementing Chemical Castration, Installation of Electronic Detection Tools, Rehabilitation, and Announcement of Identity of Sexual Violators Against Children)" (PDF). Retrieved 3 January 2021.
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  73. ↑ Curtis, Polly (2012-03-13). "Should sex offenders be chemically 'castrated'?". The Guardian. Retrieved 2020-12-29.
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