Clinical lycanthropy

Last updated
Clinical lycanthropy
Other namesZoanthropy
Specialty Psychiatry, Clinical Psychology

Clinical lycanthropy is a rare psychiatric syndrome that involves a delusion that the affected person can transform into, has transformed into, or is a non-human animal. [1] Its name is associated with the mythical condition of lycanthropy, a supernatural affliction in which humans are said to physically shapeshift into wolves. [2] The term is used by researchers mostly in the broader sense of transformation into animals in general, that, strictly speaking, is described as zoanthropy. [3]

Contents

Signs and symptoms

Affected individuals believe that they are in the process of transforming into an animal, or have already transformed into an animal. Clinical Lycanthropy has been associated with the altered states of mind that accompany psychosis, the mental state that typically involves delusions and hallucinations, with the transformation only seeming to happen in the mind and behavior of the affected person.

A 1988 study on clinical lycanthropy from the McLean Hospital reported on a series of cases, and proposed some diagnostic criteria by which clinical lycanthropy could be recognised: [4]

According to these criteria, either a delusional belief in current or past transformation or behavior that suggests a person thinks of themselves as transformed is considered evidence of clinical lycanthropy. The authors note that, although the condition seems to be an expression of psychosis, there is no specific diagnosis of mental or neurological illness associated with its behavioral consequences.

Clinical lycanthropy is not specific to an experience of human-to-wolf transformation. A wide variety of creatures have been reported as part of the shape-shifting experience. A 2004 review [1] of the medical literature lists over thirty published cases of clinical lycanthropy, only the minority of which have wolf (Lycanthropy) or dog (Cynanthropy) themes. Canines are certainly not uncommon, although the experience of being transformed into other animals such as a hyena, cat, horse, bird, or tiger has been reported on more than one occasion. [5] [6]

Transformation into frogs, and even bees, has been reported in some instances. The term ophidianthropy refers to the delusion that one has been transformed into a snake, of which two case studies have been reported. [7] [8]

In Japan, transformation into foxes and dogs was common (ja:狐憑き, ja:犬神). A 1989 case study [9] described how one individual reported a serial transformation, experiencing a change from human to dog, to a horse, and then to a cat, before returning to the reality of human existence after treatment. There are also reports of people who experienced transformation into an animal only listed as "unspecified."

Proposed mechanisms

Clinical lycanthropy is a very rare condition and is largely considered to be an idiosyncratic expression of a psychotic or dissociative episode caused by another condition such as dissociative identity disorder, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or clinical depression. It has also been associated with drug intoxication and withdrawal, cerebrovascular disease, traumatic brain injury, dementia, delirium, and seizures. [10]

However, there are suggestions that certain neurological conditions and cultural influences may result in the expression of the human-animal transformation theme that defines the condition.

Neurological factors

One important factor may be differences or changes in parts of the brain known to be involved in representing body shape (e.g., see proprioception and body image). A neuroimaging study of two people diagnosed with clinical lycanthropy showed that these areas display unusual activation, suggesting that when people report their bodies are changing shape, they may be genuinely perceiving those feelings. [11]

Treatment

Because clinical lycanthropy is strongly associated with psychotic disorders, antipsychotic medication is often an effective treatment. It may also be treated with antidepressants or mood stabilizers, in cases in which it is a symptom of depression or bipolar disorder. Patients with clinical lycanthropy may also benefit from a cultural approach to treatment, as the syndrome is generally agreed to be culture-bound. [12]

Clinical lycanthropy is a type of delusional misidentification syndrome of the self, and it often overlaps with other delusional misidentification syndromes. [13] For example, there is a case study of a psychiatric patient who had both clinical lycanthropy and Cotard delusion. [14]

In rare cases, individuals may believe that other people have transformed into animals. [15] This has been termed "lycanthropic intermetamorphosis" [11] and "lycanthropy spectrum." [15] A 2009 study reported that, after the consumption of the drug MDMA (Ecstasy), a man displayed symptoms of paranoid psychosis by claiming that his relatives had changed into various animals such as a boar, a donkey, and a horse. [16]

History

Catherine Clark Kroeger has written that several parts of the Bible refer to King Nebuchadnezzar's behavior in the book of Daniel 4 as being a manifestation of clinical lycanthropy. [17] Neurologist Andrew J. Larner has written that the fate of Odysseus's crew due to the magic of Circe may be one of the earliest examples of clinical lycanthropy. [18]

It is believed that the Armenian king Tiridates III also had this disorder. He was cured by Gregory the Illuminator.

According to Persian tradition, the Buyid prince Majd al-Dawla was experiencing an illusion that he was a cow. He was cured by Ibn Sina. [19]

Notions that lycanthropy was due to a medical condition go back to the seventh century, when the Alexandrian physician Paulus Aegineta attributed lycanthropy to melancholia or an "excess of black bile". [20] In 1563, a Lutheran physician named Johann Weyer wrote that werewolves had an imbalance in their melancholic humour and exhibited the physical symptoms of paleness, "a dry tongue and a great thirst" as well as sunken, dim and dry eyes. [20]

Even King James VI and I in his 1597 treatise Daemonologie does not blame werewolf behaviour on delusions created by the Devil but "an excess of melancholy as the culprit which causes some men to believe that they are wolves and to 'counterfeit' the actions of these animals". [21] The perception of an association between mental illness and animalistic behaviour can be traced throughout the history of folklore from many different countries. [22]

Case examples

On August 15, 2016, Martin County Florida Sheriff's Office deputies found a 19-year-old male on top of a bloodied 59-year-old man, gnawing on his face, eating pieces of flesh, and making growling sounds. Officers tased, repeatedly kicked, and ultimately required a police dog's assistance in subduing the 19-year-old. Inside the garage of the home on Southeast Kokomo Lane, just north of the Palm Beach County line, deputies found a 53-year-old woman, beaten, bloodied and unresponsive. Ultimately both the 59-year-old man and 53-year-old woman would die from their injuries. In the weeks ahead of this incident, the 19-year-old told family members he believed he was either half-man, half-horse or half-man, half-dog. Clinical psychologist Dr. Phillip Resnick later assessed the 19-year-old as having clinical lycanthropy. [23] [24]

A 20-year-old man was admitted to a mental hospital due to his increasingly agitated and erratic behaviors. During his initial evaluation, he was guarded and preoccupied. He had no previous psychiatric history. Over the next few days, he displayed increasingly psychotic, animal-like behaviors. These behaviors included howling loudly, running abruptly, and crawling on all fours. He appeared to be internally stimulated. When asked about these behaviors, he was initially evasive but eventually admitted that he believed he was a werewolf and would periodically transform into a wolf. He started believing this after having visions of "the Devil" years before and reported hearing random voices. The patient was started on ziprasidone and his symptoms gradually responded and his animal-like behaviors eventually ceased altogether. [25]

A 25-year-old man was sent for treatment during a period of excessive hand-washing, irritable behavior, decreased sleep, and acting like a buffalo. The patient reported that he had engaged in sexual activity with his buffalo and believed that buffalo cells had entered his body and were transforming him into a buffalo. He began obsessively washing his hands and genitals in order to avoid the transition. He saw himself as having buffalo body parts and became preoccupied about his appearance. He then began to act as a buffalo by nodding his head, crawling on all fours, and seeking out hay and grass to eat. He was ultimately diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder and body dysmorphic disorder with delusional beliefs. He was treated with fluoxetine and risperidone, and after 6 months of pharmacotherapy, his body dysmorphia and hand-washing were both reduced. [10]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Catatonia</span> Psychiatric behavioural syndrome

Catatonia is a complex neuropsychiatric behavioral syndrome that is characterized by abnormal movements, immobility, abnormal behaviors, and withdrawal. The onset of catatonia can be acute or subtle and symptoms can wax, wane, or change during episodes. It has historically been related to schizophrenia, but catatonia is most often seen in mood disorders. It is now known that catatonic symptoms are nonspecific and may be observed in other mental, neurological, and medical conditions. Catatonia is now a stand-alone diagnosis, and the term is used to describe a feature of the underlying disorder.

A mental disorder, also referred to as a mental illness, a mental health condition, or a psychiatric disability, is a behavioral or mental pattern that causes significant distress or impairment of personal functioning. A mental disorder is also characterized by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotional regulation, or behavior, often in a social context. Such disturbances may occur as single episodes, may be persistent, or may be relapsing–remitting. There are many different types of mental disorders, with signs and symptoms that vary widely between specific disorders. A mental disorder is one aspect of mental health.

Psychosis is a condition of the mind or psyche that results in difficulties determining what is real and what is not real. Symptoms may include delusions and hallucinations, among other features. Additional symptoms are disorganized thinking and incoherent speech and behavior that is inappropriate for a given situation. There may also be sleep problems, social withdrawal, lack of motivation, and difficulties carrying out daily activities. Psychosis can have serious adverse outcomes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Werewolf</span> Mythological human with acquired ability to transform into a wolflike creature

In folklore, a werewolf, or occasionally lycanthrope, is an individual who can shape-shift into a wolf, or especially in modern film, a therianthropic hybrid wolf-like creature, either purposely or after being placed under a curse or affliction, often a bite or the occasional scratch from another werewolf, with the transformations occurring on the night of a full moon. Early sources for belief in this ability or affliction, called lycanthropy, are Petronius (27–66) and Gervase of Tilbury (1150–1228).

A delusion is a false fixed belief that is not amenable to change in light of conflicting evidence. As a pathology, it is distinct from a belief based on false or incomplete information, confabulation, dogma, illusion, hallucination, or some other misleading effects of perception, as individuals with those beliefs are able to change or readjust their beliefs upon reviewing the evidence. However:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Erotomania</span> Romantic delusional disorder

Erotomania, also known as de Clérambault's syndrome, is a relatively uncommon paranoid condition that is characterized by an individual's delusions of another person being infatuated with them. It is listed in the DSM-5 as a subtype of a delusional disorder. Commonly, the onset of erotomania is sudden, and the course is chronic.

Schizoaffective disorder is a mental disorder characterized by symptoms of both schizophrenia (psychosis) and a mood disorder - either bipolar disorder or depression. The main diagnostic criterion is the presence of psychotic symptoms for at least two weeks without prominent mood symptoms. Common symptoms include hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech and thinking, as well as mood episodes. Schizoaffective disorder can often be misdiagnosed when the correct diagnosis may be psychotic depression, bipolar I disorder, schizophreniform disorder, or schizophrenia. This is a problem as treatment and prognosis differ greatly for most of these diagnoses. Many people with schizoaffective disorder have other mental disorders including anxiety disorders.

Capgras delusion or Capgras syndrome is a psychiatric disorder in which a person holds a delusion that a friend, spouse, parent, another close family member, or pet has been replaced by an identical impostor. It is named after Joseph Capgras (1873–1950), the French psychiatrist who first described the disorder.

Delusional misidentification syndrome is an umbrella term, introduced by Christodoulou for a group of four delusional disorders that occur in the context of mental and neurological illness. They are grouped together as they often occur simultaneously or interchange, and they display the common concept of the double (sosie). They all involve a belief that the identity of a person, object, or place has somehow changed or has been altered. Christodoulu further categorized these disorders into those including hypo -identification of a well-known person, and hyper -identification of an unknown person. As these delusions typically only concern one particular topic, they also fall under the category called monothematic delusions.

The syndrome of subjective doubles is a rare delusional misidentification syndrome in which a person experiences the delusion that they have a double or Doppelgänger with the same appearance, but usually with different character traits, that is leading a life of its own. The syndrome is also called the syndrome of doubles of the self, delusion of subjective doubles, or simply subjective doubles. Sometimes, the patient is under the impression that there is more than one double. A double may be projected onto any person, from a stranger to a family member.

Thought broadcasting is a type of delusional condition in which the affected person believes that others can hear their inner thoughts, despite a clear lack of evidence. The person may believe that either those nearby can perceive their thoughts or that they are being transmitted via mediums such as television, radio or the internet. Different people can experience thought broadcasting in different ways. Thought broadcasting is most commonly found among people who have a psychotic disorder, specifically schizophrenia.

The obsessive–compulsive spectrum is a model of medical classification where various psychiatric, neurological and/or medical conditions are described as existing on a spectrum of conditions related to obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). "The disorders are thought to lie on a spectrum from impulsive to compulsive where impulsivity is said to persist due to deficits in the ability to inhibit repetitive behavior with known negative consequences, while compulsivity persists as a consequence of deficits in recognizing completion of tasks." OCD is a mental disorder characterized by obsessions and/or compulsions. An obsession is defined as "a recurring thought, image, or urge that the individual cannot control". Compulsion can be described as a "ritualistic behavior that the person feels compelled to perform". The model suggests that many conditions overlap with OCD in symptomatic profile, demographics, family history, neurobiology, comorbidity, clinical course and response to various pharmacotherapies. Conditions described as being on the spectrum are sometimes referred to as obsessive–compulsive spectrum disorders.

Olfactory reference syndrome (ORS) is a psychiatric condition in which there is a persistent false belief and preoccupation with the idea of emitting abnormal body odors which the patient thinks are foul and offensive to other individuals. People with this condition often misinterpret others' behaviors, e.g. sniffing, touching their nose or opening a window, as being referential to an unpleasant body odor which in reality is non-existent and cannot be detected by other people.

Clinical vampirism, more commonly known as Renfield's syndrome, is an obsession with drinking blood. The earliest presentation of clinical vampirism in psychiatric literature was a psychoanalytic interpretation of two cases, contributed by Richard L. Vanden Bergh and John. F. Kelley. As the authors point out, over 50,000 people addicted to drinking blood have appeared in psychiatric literature from 1892 to 2010. This was documented in the work of Austrian forensic psychiatrist Richard von Krafft-Ebing. Many medical publications concerning clinical vampirism can be found in the literature of forensic psychiatry, with the behavior being reported as an aspect of extraordinary violent crimes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grandiose delusions</span> Subtype of delusion

Grandiose delusions (GDs), also known as delusions of grandeur or expansive delusions, are a subtype of delusion characterized by extraordinary belief that one is famous, omnipotent, wealthy, or otherwise very powerful. Grandiose delusions often have a religious, science fictional, or supernatural theme. Examples include the extraordinary belief that one is a deity or celebrity, or that one possesses extraordinary talents, accomplishments, or superpowers.

Boanthropy is a psychological disorder in which a human believes themselves to be a bovine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Persecutory delusion</span> Delusion involving perception of persecution

A persecutory delusion is a type of delusional condition in which the affected person believes that harm is going to occur to oneself by a persecutor, despite a clear lack of evidence. The person may believe that they are being targeted by an individual or a group of people. Persecution delusions are very diverse in terms of content and vary from the possible, although improbable, to the completely bizarre. The delusion can be found in various disorders, being more usual in psychotic disorders.

Childhood schizophrenia is similar in characteristics of schizophrenia that develops at a later age, but has an onset before the age of 13 years, and is more difficult to diagnose. Schizophrenia is characterized by positive symptoms that can include hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized speech; negative symptoms, such as blunted affect and avolition and apathy, and a number of cognitive impairments. Differential diagnosis is problematic since several other neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism spectrum disorder, language disorder, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, also have signs and symptoms similar to childhood-onset schizophrenia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cotard's syndrome</span> Delusion that one is dead or non-existent

Cotard's syndrome, also known as Cotard's delusion or walking corpse syndrome, is a rare mental disorder in which the affected person holds the delusional belief that they are dead, do not exist, are putrefying, or have lost their blood or internal organs. Statistical analysis of a hundred-patient cohort indicated that denial of self-existence is present in 45% of the cases of Cotard's syndrome; the other 55% of the patients presented with delusions of immortality.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Werewoman</span> Woman who has taken the form of an animal

In mythology and literature, a werewoman or were-woman is a woman who has taken the form of an animal through a process of lycanthropy. The use of the word "were" refers to the ability to shape-shift but is, taken literally, a contradiction in terms since in Old English the word "wer" means man. This would mean it literally translates to "man-woman".

References

Citations

  1. 1 2 Garlipp P, Gödecke-Koch T, Dietrich DE, Haltenhof H (January 2004). "Lycanthropy--psychopathological and psychodynamical aspects". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 109 (1): 19–22. doi:10.1046/j.1600-0447.2003.00243.x. PMID   14674954. S2CID   41324350.
  2. ↑ Degroot, J.J.M. (2003). Religious System of China. Kessinger Publishing. p. 484.
  3. ↑ Blom 2014, p. 96.
  4. ↑ Keck PE, Pope HG, Hudson JI, McElroy SL, Kulick AR (February 1988). "Lycanthropy: alive and well in the twentieth century". Psychological Medicine. 18 (1): 113–20. doi:10.1017/S003329170000194X. PMID   3363031. S2CID   27491377.
  5. ↑ Kattimani, S, Menon, V., Srivastava, M.K. & Aniruddha Mukharjee, A. (2010). "Ophidianthropy: The Case of a Woman Who 'Turned into a Snake'" Archived 2014-04-16 at the Wayback Machine . Psychiatry Reports.
  6. ↑ Mondal, Gargi; Nizamie, Shamsul H.; Mukherjee, Nirmalya; Tikka, Sai K.; Jaiswal, Bikramaditya (2014). "The 'snake' man: Ophidianthropy in a case of schizophrenia, along with literature review". Asian Journal of Psychiatry. 12: 148–149. doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2014.10.002. PMID   25453533.
  7. ↑ Kattimani, S, Menon, V., Srivastava, M.K. & Aniruddha Mukharjee, A. (2010). "Ophidianthropy: The Case of a Woman Who 'Turned into a Snake'" Archived 2014-04-16 at the Wayback Machine . Psychiatry Reports.
  8. ↑ Mondal, Gargi; Nizamie, Shamsul H.; Mukherjee, Nirmalya; Tikka, Sai K.; Jaiswal, Bikramaditya (2014). "The 'snake' man: Ophidianthropy in a case of schizophrenia, along with literature review". Asian Journal of Psychiatry. 12: 148–149. doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2014.10.002. PMID   25453533.
  9. ↑ Dening TR, West A (1989). "Multiple Serial Lycanthropy. A Case Report". Psychopathology. 22 (6): 344–7. doi:10.1159/000284617. PMID   2639384.
  10. 1 2 Mudgal, Varchasvi; Alam, Mohd. R.; Niranjan, Vijay; Jain, Priyash; Pal, Virendra S. (2021). "A Rare Report of Clinical Lycanthropy in Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders". Cureus. 13 (2): e13346. doi: 10.7759/cureus.13346 . PMC   7971710 . PMID   33754087.
  11. 1 2 Moselhy HF (1999). "Lycanthropy: New Evidence of its Origin". Psychopathology. 32 (4): 173–176. doi:10.1159/000029086. PMID   10364725. S2CID   8175369. Archived from the original on 2011-06-15. Retrieved 2009-02-23.
  12. ↑ Guessoum, Sélim Benjamin; Benoit, Laelia; Minassian, Sevan; Mallet, Jasmina; Moro, Marie Rose (2021). "Clinical Lycanthropy, Neurobiology, Culture: A Systematic Review". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 12: 718101. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.718101 . PMC   8542696 . PMID   34707519.
  13. ↑ Guessoum, Sélim Benjamin; Benoit, Laelia; Minassian, Sevan; Mallet, Jasmina; Moro, Marie Rose (2021). "Clinical Lycanthropy, Neurobiology, Culture: A Systematic Review". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 12: 718101. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.718101 . ISSN   1664-0640. PMC   8542696 . PMID   34707519.
  14. ↑ Nejad AG, Toofani K (2005). "Co-Existence of Lycanthropy and Cotard's Syndrome in a Single Case". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 111 (3): 250–252. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2004.00438.x. PMID   15701110. S2CID   21040942.
  15. 1 2 Nejad, A. G. (2007). "Belief in transforming another person into a wolf: Could it be a variant of lycanthropy?". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 115 (2): 159–161. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2006.00891.x. PMID   17244180. S2CID   45455487.
  16. ↑ Nasirian, M.; Banazadeh, N.; Kheradmand, A. (2009). "Rare Variant of Lycanthropy and Ecstasy". Addiction & Health. 1 (1): 53–56. PMC   3905497 . PMID   24494083.
  17. ↑ Kroeger, Catherine Clark; Evans, Mary J. (2009). The Women's Study Bible: New Living Translation (Second ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-529125-4.
  18. ↑ Larner, Andrew J (September–October 2010). "Neurological Signs: Lycanthropy" (PDF). Advances in Clinical Neuroscience and Rehabilitation. 10 (4): 50. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 October 2012. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
  19. ↑ "معالجه کردن بوعلی سینا / آن صاحب مالیخولیا را". 21 August 2008. Archived from the original on 2017-06-12. Retrieved 2017-05-30.
  20. 1 2 Sconduto 2008, p. 131.
  21. ↑ Sconduto 2008, p. 156.
  22. ↑ Metzger, N. (2013). "Battling demons with medical authority: Werewolves, physicians and rationalization". History of Psychiatry. 24 (3): 341–355. doi:10.1177/0957154X13482835. PMC   4090416 . PMID   24573449.
  23. ↑ Winston, Hannah. "Three years later, Austin Harrouff case still puzzles many". The Palm Beach Post. Retrieved 2 August 2022.
  24. ↑ Winston, Hannah (28 March 2019). "Doctor: Austin Harrouff thought he was 'half-dog, half-man' in 2016 double homicide". The Palm Beach Post. Retrieved 2 August 2022.
  25. ↑ Shrestha, Rajeet (January 2014). "Clinical Lycanthropy: Delusional Misidentification of the 'Self'". The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 26 (1): E53–E54. doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.13030057. ISSN   0895-0172. PMID   24515715.

Works cited

Further reading

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.