Diplotaxis tenuifolia

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Diplotaxis tenuifolia
Diplotaxis tenuifolia Sturm32.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Brassicales
Family: Brassicaceae
Genus: Diplotaxis
Species:
D. tenuifolia
Binomial name
Diplotaxis tenuifolia
(L.) DC.

Diplotaxis tenuifolia is a species of flowering plant in the mustard family known by the common name perennial wall-rocket. It is native to Europe and western Asia, where it grows on disturbed ground and roadsides, and it can now be found throughout much of the temperate world where it has naturalized. In recent years it has increasingly been cultivated to produce salad leaves, which are marketed as wild rocket in Britain or arugula in the US. It is easily confused with garden rocket, which has similar uses.

Contents

Description

Old walls provide a suitable habitat Diplotaxis tenuifolia Whitstable harbour.jpg
Old walls provide a suitable habitat
Front view of a flower Diplotaxis tenuifolia flower.jpg
Front view of a flower
Side view of the flowers and buds Diplotaxis tenuifolia sl17.jpg
Side view of the flowers and buds
The seeds are arranged in two rows within each valve of the fruit Diplotaxis tenuifolia sl25.jpg
The seeds are arranged in two rows within each valve of the fruit
The short stipe below the fruit is a useful identification feature Diplotaxis tenuifolia sl22.jpg
The short stipe below the fruit is a useful identification feature
The leaves are typically deeply divided, almost pinnate Diplotaxis tenuifolia 910.JPG
The leaves are typically deeply divided, almost pinnate
A likely native habitat is on shingle beaches Diplotaxis tenuifolia habitat.jpg
A likely native habitat is on shingle beaches

Perennial wall-rocket is a glabrous herb with an erect or sprawling habit, that grows up to 1.3 m tall, with a solid, almost woody terete stem and spreading branches. The deeply pinnate leaves are up to 12 cm long and often rather fleshy, with a peppery taste and a musty smell. [1]

In the British Isles, it flowers from May to September [1] (or through October in a warm year). [2] In Spain, it can be seen flowering between April and December. [3] The inflorescence is a branched raceme up to 30 cm long with up to 30 flowers, each of which has 4 free bright yellow petals up to 15 mm long, and 4 free yellow/brown sepals up to 7.5 mm long. Each flower has 6 stamens and a single style. [4] [5]

The fruit is a straight, flat silique (pod) up to five centimeters long. The pedicels are shorter than the fruits and ascend at an acute angle to the stem. Above the receptacle is a short (2 mm) stalk (or stipe) below the pod (a useful feature for separating this species from annual wall-rocket). The seeds are arranged in 2 rows, or staggered in a zigzag pattern, towards the centre of the pod, which in turn consists of 2 valves, so a cross-section of the fruit shows 4 seeds in total. This is a distinguishing feature of the genus Diplotaxis , although it is not always easy to see, as plants are not self-pollinating, so ripe seeds do not always develop. [1]

Taxonomy

The original name (basionym) of perennial wall-rocket is Sisymbrium tenuifolium, published by Linnaeus in 1755, [6] but it was transferred to the new genus Diplotaxis by de Candolle in 1821. It has been given many other names (synonyms) over the years, within the diverse genera Arabis (rockcresses), Brassica (mustards), Crucifera, Eruca (rockets), Erysimum (wallflowers) and Sinapis (charlock), which reflects the complex history of crucifer taxonomy. A full list is maintained by the Catalogue of Life Partnership.

There is only one currently recognised subspecies: Diplotaxis tenuifolia subsp. cretacea (Kotov) Sobr.-Vesp., which was described in 1996 and which is restricted to Ukraine and western Russia. [7]

D. tenuifolia is assumed to have hybridised with D. viminea resulting in D. muralis. [8] It has also been hybridised with Raphanus sativus. [9]

The chromosome number is 2n = 22 (based on British material). [1]

The generic name Diplotaxis comes from the Ancient Greek, διπλός (diplos) = twofold, or double; and τάσσω, τάσσειν (tasso, tassein), which means to put into order, or to draw up in a line (as with troops before a battle). It refers to the double row of seeds in each part of the fruit, which distinguishes this genus from others within the Brassicaceae. [1] The specific epithet tenuifolia simply means "narrow-leafed". [10]

The common name "rocket" is a corruption of the Italian word ruchetta, which describes various cruciferous plants. This species is also sometimes called wild rocket, sand rocket, Lincoln weed (mainly in Australia) and white rocket; the seeds are sometimes marketed as "wild Italian arugula" or "sylvetta arugula".

Identification

In Britain it is most likely to be confused with annual wall-rocket, but it does not have a basal rosette, the leaves are divided more than halfway to the midrib, and the fruit has a short stalk (stipe) above the sepal scars. [4] [1]

The Diplotaxis species can be separated from most other crucifers by the double row of seeds in each valve of the fruit (although this is a difficult feature to see in unfertilised plants) [1] and a seedless beak to the silique. [11]

Distribution

It is native to parts of Europe, reaching in the east to Turkey and Syria. It is extinct from Morocco and Algeria, but has been introduced in a number of regions: Cyprus, the Caucasus, Palestine, Yemen, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Canada (Ontario, Quebec and Nova Scotia), the United States, Costa Rica, Argentina and Uruguay. [12]

Within Europe, its native range covers much of France, the Low Countries, Italy, the Pannonian Basin and the western Balkans up to Macedonia, with generally more thinly scattered populations in northern Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Crimea, Sicilly, Malta, Sardinia, Corsica and parts of Spain. [13] It has extensively been introduced further north from its native range. In the British Isles the plant is an archaeophyte, with industrial regions and ports still at the centre of the distribution. It is established especially in parts of England and Wales (some believing the plant could even be native to the south-east). Its range has been expanding to the west since the 19th century, but it is still very rare in Scotland and Ireland. [14] It has also been introduced into much of Central Europe: throughout Switzerland, Austria, Germany and Poland, with more scattered instances on the southern shores of Norway and Sweden (where it is found in fewer areas that in the recent past), the Baltic States, Belarus and a few locations further east in Ukraine and European Russia. It has also been introduced on Menorca and near Lisbon in Portugal. [13]

Ecology

It is a ruderal plant of roadsides and waste ground. [1] [3] It generally grows in places where there is full sunlight and requires moderately damp soils with a slightly alkaline reaction and moderately fertile conditions. It is tolerant of occasional salinity, which allows it to grow on the upper part of beaches and along salt-treated road verges. The Ellenberg values in Britain are L = 8, F = 5, R = 7, N = 6, and S = 1. [15] In Spain, it can be found at elevations of up to 800 m. [3]

There are 11 species of insect that are known to feed on perennial wall-rocket in Britain. [16] Five of these are weevils (Curculionidae): Ceutorhynchus contractus (Marsham) (the cabbage leaf weevil), Ceutorhynchus picitarsis Gyllenhal, C. timidus Weise (= C. chalibaeus Germar, 1824), [17] Otiorhynchus ligneus (Olivier) and O. ovatus (L.).

Ceutorhynchus contractus and C. picitarsis adults consume the leaves and stems of this plant, whereas the larvae of C. chalibaeus make galls 1-2 cm long in the petioles. [17] The two broad-nosed weevils (Otiorhynchus ligneus and O. ovatus) feed on the roots. All five species are polyphagous and widespread. [16] [18]

Four of the phytophagous insects are Diptera (flies). The midge Contarinia nasturtii (Kieffer) has larvae that infest the stems, leaves and flowerheads, causing distortion and sterility. Dasineura brassicae (Winnertz) (previously D. napi (Loew)) is the brassica pod midge, an invasive non-native pest in Britain which causes damage to the developing seedpods. It is particularly of importance on rapeseed crops, but it can also infest wild plants of perennial wall-rocket. [19] Gephyraulus raphanistri (Kieffer) is a gall midge that destroys the flowerheads. [20] None of these species is restricted to wall-rocket and most are quite common, although the NBN Atlas has no records of brassica pod midge on wild plants in Britain as of 2022.

Finally, three species of Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) are listed. Pieris brassicae (L.) is the common cabbage white butterfly, whose larvae eat the leaves and stems of this and many other species of Brassicaceae; Evergestis extimalis (Scopoli) is a micromoth whose larvae feed in the flowerheads; and Sitochroa verticalis (L.) (the lesser pearl) is also a micromoth, the larvae of which are found on a wide variety of plants.

Uses

Baby leaf rocket is cultivated worldwide as a salad leaf. In addition to D. tenuifolia, the annual Eruca sativa is grown and marketed under the same common names. These leaves are usually mixed with other baby leaf crops to form a mesclun-style salad. These crops have become popular due to their distinctive taste and texture in salads. [11]

Leaves preserved at 5 °C show a loss of ascorbic acid and glucosinolates and an increase in polyphenols (then preservation after harvesting may be nutritionally good, since for example sinapic acid and ferulic acid have anti-cancer effects and umbelliferone is an anti-oxidant). [21]

Wild rocket is high in ascorbic acid, carotenoids, polyphenols and glucosinolates (above all glucosativin and glucoerucin, which are the cause of the pungent flavour). [22] When the leaves are chewed glucosinolates, through the enzyme myrosinase, are metabolized in isothiocyanates [21] and indoles. [22]

One of Trotula's works, Treatments for Women mentions "wild rocket cooked in wine" in a remedy for sanious flux in women. [23]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brassicaceae</span> Family of flowering plants

Brassicaceae or Cruciferae is a medium-sized and economically important family of flowering plants commonly known as the mustards, the crucifers, or the cabbage family. Most are herbaceous plants, while some are shrubs. The leaves are simple, lack stipules, and appear alternately on stems or in rosettes. The inflorescences are terminal and lack bracts. The flowers have four free sepals, four free alternating petals, two shorter free stamens and four longer free stamens. The fruit has seeds in rows, divided by a thin wall.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cabbage</span> Leafy vegetable in the flowering plant family Brassicaceae

Cabbage, comprising several cultivars of Brassica oleracea, is a leafy green, red (purple), or white biennial plant grown as an annual vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads. It is descended from the wild cabbage, and belongs to the "cole crops" or brassicas, meaning it is closely related to broccoli and cauliflower ; Brussels sprouts ; and Savoy cabbage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Broccoli</span> Edible green plant in the cabbage family

Broccoli is an edible green plant in the cabbage family whose large flowering head, stalk and small associated leaves are eaten as a vegetable. Broccoli is classified in the Italica cultivar group of the species Brassica oleracea. Broccoli has large flower heads, or florets, usually dark green, arranged in a tree-like structure branching out from a thick stalk, which is usually light green. The mass of flower heads is surrounded by leaves. Broccoli resembles cauliflower, which is a different but closely related cultivar group of the same Brassica species.

<i>Brassica</i> Genus of flowering plants in the cabbage family Brassicaceae

Brassica is a genus of plants in the cabbage and mustard family (Brassicaceae). The members of the genus are informally known as cruciferous vegetables, cabbages, mustard plants, or simply brassicas. Crops from this genus are sometimes called cole crops—derived from the Latin caulis, denoting the stem or stalk of a plant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rapeseed</span> Plant species grown for its oil-rich seed

Rapeseed, also known as rape and oilseed rape, is a bright-yellow flowering member of the family Brassicaceae, cultivated mainly for its oil-rich seed, which naturally contains appreciable amounts of erucic acid. The term "canola" denotes a group of rapeseed cultivars that were bred to have very low levels of erucic acid and which are especially prized for use as human and animal food. Rapeseed is the third-largest source of vegetable oil and the second-largest source of protein meal in the world.

<i>Pieris rapae</i> Species of butterfly

Pieris rapae is a small- to medium-sized butterfly species of the whites-and-yellows family Pieridae. It is known in Europe as the small white, in North America as the cabbage white or cabbage butterfly, on several continents as the small cabbage white, and in New Zealand as the white butterfly. The butterfly is recognizable by its white color with small black dots on its wings, and it can be distinguished from P. brassicae by its larger size and the black band at the tip of its forewings.

<i>Hesperis matronalis</i> Species of flowering plant in the cabbage family

Hesperis matronalis is an herbaceous flowering plant species in the family Brassicaceae. It has numerous common names, including dame's rocket, damask-violet, dame's-violet, dames-wort, dame's gilliflower, night-scented gilliflower, queen's gilliflower, rogue's gilliflower, sweet rocket, and mother-of-the-evening.

<i>Barbarea</i> Genus of flowering plants

Barbarea is a genus of about 22 species of flowering plants in the family Brassicaceae, native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the highest species diversity in southern Europe and southwest Asia. They are small, herbaceous, biennial or perennial plants with dark green, deeply lobed leaves and yellow flowers with four petals.

<i>Diplotaxis</i> (plant) Genus of flowering plants

Diplotaxis (wall-rocket) is a genus of 32–34 species of flowering plants in the family Brassicaceae (Cruciferae), native to Europe, the Mediterranean region and Macaronesia; the species diversity is highest in the Iberian Peninsula, North Africa and the Cape Verde archipelago. They are annual or perennial plants, either herbaceous or sub-shrubby with a woody base. The flowers are yellow in most species, but are white in Diplotaxis erucoides and violet in Diplotaxis acris. Some species, such as Diplotaxis tenuifolia and Diplotaxis muralis, have been historically used as leaf vegetables, are similar to Eruca sativa in their peppery flavour, and are used interchangeably with it.

<i>Barbarea vulgaris</i> Species of flowering plant

Barbarea vulgaris, also called wintercress, or alternatively winter rocket, rocketcress, yellow rocketcress, yellow rocket, wound rocket, herb barbara, creases, or creasy greens, is a biennial herb of the genus Barbarea, belonging to the family Brassicaceae.

<i>Sisymbrium irio</i> Species of flowering plant

Sisymbrium irio, London rocket, is a flowering plant in the cabbage family which is native to the Middle East, north Africa and southern Europe, and which has spread widely around the world as an invasive plant of dry, disturbed land in towns, deserts and farmland. It has traditionally been used as a medicinal herb for a variety of ailments. Its English common name originated when it flourished after the Great Fire of London in 1666, although it is not native to Britain and it does not tend to persist there.

<i>Hyaloperonospora brassicae</i> Species of single-celled organism

Hyaloperonospora brassicae, in the family Peronosporaceae, is a plant pathogen. It causes downy mildew of species of Brassica, Raphanus, Sinapis and probably other genera within the Brassicaceae. In the past, the cause of downy mildew in any plant in the family Brassicaceae was considered to be a single species Peronospora parasitica. However, this has recently been shown to be a complex of species with narrower host ranges, now classified in the genus Hyaloperonospora, for example Hyaloperonospora parasitica on the weed Capsella bursa-pastoris. From the perspective of plant pathology, Hyaloperonospora brassicae is now the name of the most important pathogen in this complex, attacking the major agricultural and horticultural Brassica species. Other significant Brassicaceous hosts are attacked by different species in the complex, e.g. horseradish by Hyaloperonospora cochleariae, wallflower by Hyaloperonospora cheiranthi.

<i>Eruca vesicaria</i> Edible annual plant

Rocket, eruca, or arugula is an edible annual plant in the family Brassicaceae used as a leaf vegetable for its fresh, tart, bitter, and peppery flavor. Its other common names include garden rocket, as well as colewort, roquette, ruchetta, rucola, rucoli, and rugula.

<i>Eruca</i> Genus of flowering plants

Eruca is a genus of flowering plants in the family Brassicaceae, native to the Mediterranean region, which includes the leaf vegetable known as arugula or rocket.

<i>Brevicoryne brassicae</i> Species of true bug

Brevicoryne brassicae, commonly known as the cabbage aphid or cabbage aphis, is a destructive aphid native to Europe that is now found in many other areas of the world. The aphids feed on many varieties of produce, including cabbage, broccoli (especially), Brussels sprouts, cauliflower and many other members of the genus Brassica, but do not feed on plants outside of the family Brassicaceae. The insects entirely avoid plants other than those of Brassicaceae; even though thousands may be eating broccoli near strawberries, the strawberries will be left untouched.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Napa cabbage</span> Subspecies of flowering plant

Napa cabbage is a type of Chinese cabbage originating near the Beijing region of China that is widely used in East Asian cuisine. Since the 20th century, it has also become a widespread crop in Europe, the Americas, and Australia. In much of the world, it is referred to as "Chinese cabbage". In Australia, it is sometimes referred to as "wombok".

<i>Diplotaxis muralis</i> Species of plant

Diplotaxis muralis, the annual wall-rocket, is a species of flowering plant in the family Brassicaceae. This plant is native to Europe, Asia, and Africa, but it is found throughout the temperate world, where it has naturalized. This is an erect mustard-like plant rarely reaching half a meter in height. It has lobed leaves and its stems are topped with dense inflorescences of yellow, or occasionally light purple, flowers with small oval petals and large anthers. The fruit is a podlike silique two to four centimeters long.

<i>Contarinia nasturtii</i> Species of fly

Contarinia nasturtii, the swede midge, is a small fly, the larvae of which infest brassica plants, causing twisting and distortion of the leaf stems and foliage including death of the growing point in seedlings, or damage to developing flower heads. It is native to Europe and Turkey, and has been introduced into North America where it is regarded as an invasive species.

<i>Ceutorhynchus obstrictus</i> Species of beetle

Ceutorhynchus obstrictus, the cabbage seedpod weevil, is a species of snout beetles or true weevils which is widespread in Europe and lives on several types of crucifers. The adult weevils feed on the leaves, but breed in the seedpods, where the larvae destroy the seeds. It can be a harmful pest on crops like rapeseed/canola, cabbage and relatives or Brassica rapa.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Rich, T.C.G. (1991). Crucifers of Great Britain and Ireland. London: Botanical Society of the British Isles. p. 100. ISBN   0901158208.
  2. ↑ Not a Horticulturist. "Tag: Diplotaxis Tenuifolia" . Retrieved 15 October 2022.
  3. 1 2 3 Martínez Laborde, J.B. (1993). "Diplotaxis L." (PDF). Flora iberica. Vol. 4. Cruciferae-Monotropaceae. p. 349.
  4. 1 2 Rose, Francis (2006). The Wild Flower Key. London: Frederick Warne. ISBN   978-0-7232-5175-0.
  5. ↑ Stace, C.A. (2019). New Flora of the British Isles. Suffolk. ISBN   978-1-5272-2630-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  6. ↑ Global Biodiversity Information Facility. "Diplotaxis tenuifolia (L.) DC" . Retrieved 6 October 2022.
  7. ↑ Global Biodiversity Information Facility. "Diplotaxis tenuifolia subsp. cretacea (Kotov) Sobr.-Vesp" . Retrieved 6 October 2022.
  8. ↑ Ueno, O.; Wada, Y.; Wakai, M.; Bang, S. W. (March 2006). "Evidence from Photosynthetic Characteristics for the Hybrid Origin of Diplotaxis muralis from a C 3 ‐C 4 Intermediate and a C 3 Species". Plant Biology. 8 (2): 253–259. Bibcode:2006PlBio...8..253U. doi:10.1055/s-2005-873050. ISSN   1435-8603. PMID   16547870. S2CID   260250600.
  9. ↑ Ueno, Osamu; Bang, Sang Woo; Wada, Yoshiharu; Kondo, Ayumu; Ishihara, Kuni; Kaneko, Yukio; Matsuzawa, Yasuo (2003). "Structural and Biochemical Dissection of Photorespiration in Hybrids Differing in Genome Constitution between Diplotaxis tenuifolia (C3-C4) and Radish (C3)". Plant Physiology. 132 (3): 1550–1559. doi:10.1104/pp.103.021329. PMC   167093 . PMID   12857835.
  10. ↑ Stearn, William T. (1980). Botanical Latin: History, Grammar, Syntax, Terminology and Vocabulary. Newton Abbot: David & Charles. ISBN   0-7153-5645-3.
  11. 1 2 Caruso, G.; Parrella, G.; Giorgini, M.; Nicoletti, R. (2018). "Crop Systems, Quality and Protection of Diplotaxis tenuifolia". Agriculture. 8 (4): 55. doi: 10.3390/agriculture8040055 .
  12. ↑ "Diplotaxis tenuifolia (L.) DC". Plants of the World Online . Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew . Retrieved 17 June 2022.
  13. 1 2 Jalas, J.; Suominen, J.; Lampinen, R. (1996). Atlas Florae Europaeae. Distribution of Vascular Plants in Europe. Vol. 11. Cruciferae (Ricotia to Raphanus). Helsinki: The Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe & Societas Biologica Fennica Vanamo. p. 231. ISBN   951-9108-11-4.
  14. ↑ "Diplotaxis tenuifolia". Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora. Retrieved 17 June 2022.
  15. ↑ Hill, M.O.; Mountford, J.O.; Roy, D.B.; Bunce, R.G.H. (1999). Ellenberg's indicator values for British plants. ECOFACT Volume 2. Technical Annex (PDF). Institute of Terrestrial Ecology. ISBN   1870393481 . Retrieved 29 May 2017.
  16. 1 2 Biological Records Centre. "Insects and their food plants".
  17. 1 2 Plant Parasites of Europe. "Ceutorhynchus chalibaeus" . Retrieved 16 October 2022.
  18. ↑ National Biodiversity Network. "Atlas" . Retrieved 16 October 2022.
  19. ↑ CABI. "Invasive Species Compendium: Dasineura brassicae datasheet" . Retrieved 16 October 2022.
  20. ↑ Plant Parasites of Europe. "Gephyraulus raphanistri (Kieffer, 1886)" . Retrieved 16 October 2022.
  21. 1 2 Spadafora ND, Amaro AL, Pereira MJ, Müller CT, Pintado M, Rogers HJ (15 November 2016). "Multi-trait analysis of post-harvest storage in rocket salad (Diplotaxis tenuifolia) links sensorial, volatile and nutritional data" (PDF). Food Chem. 211: 114–123. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.04.107 . PMID   27283614.
  22. 1 2 Bell L, Oruna-Concha MJ, Wagstaff C (1 April 2015). "Identification and quantification of glucosinolate and flavonol compounds in rocket salad (Eruca sativa, Eruca vesicaria and Diplotaxis tenuifolia) by LC-MS: highlighting the potential for improving nutritional value of rocket crops". Food Chem. 172: 852–861. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.09.116. PMC   4245720 . PMID   25442630.
  23. ↑ Green, Monica H. (2002). The Trotula : an English translation of the medieval compendium of women's medicine. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 97. ISBN   978-0812218084.
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