Electron gun

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Electron gun from a cathode-ray tube Egun.jpg
Electron gun from a cathode-ray tube
The electron gun from an RCA Vidicon video camera tube Vidicon Electron Gun.jpg
The electron gun from an RCA Vidicon video camera tube

An electron gun (also called electron emitter) is an electrical component in some vacuum tubes that produces a narrow, collimated electron beam that has a precise kinetic energy.

Contents

The largest use is in cathode-ray tubes (CRTs), used in older television sets, computer displays and oscilloscopes, before the advent of flat-panel displays. Electron guns are also used in field-emission displays (FEDs), which are essentially flat-panel displays made out of rows of extremely small cathode-ray tubes. They are also used in microwave linear beam vacuum tubes such as klystrons, inductive output tubes, travelling wave tubes, and gyrotrons, as well as in scientific instruments such as electron microscopes and particle accelerators.

Electron guns may be classified by the type of electric field generation (DC or RF), by emission mechanism (thermionic, photocathode, cold emission, plasmas source), by focusing (pure electrostatic or with magnetic fields), or by the number of electrodes.

Design

Electron gun from an oscilloscope CRT Kathodestraalbuis2.jpg
Electron gun from an oscilloscope CRT
Setup of an electron gun. 1. Hot cathode. 2. Wehnelt cylinder. 3. Anode Electron Gun with Wehnelt Cylinder.svg
Setup of an electron gun. 1. Hot cathode. 2. Wehnelt cylinder. 3. Anode

A direct current, electrostatic thermionic electron gun is formed from several parts: a hot cathode, which is heated to create a stream of electrons via thermionic emission; electrodes generating an electric field to focus the electron beam (such as a Wehnelt cylinder); and one or more anode electrodes which accelerate and further focus the beam. A large voltage difference between the cathode and anode accelerates the electrons away from the cathode. A repulsive ring placed between the electrodes focuses the electrons onto a small spot on the anode, at the expense of a lower extraction field strength on the cathode surface. There is often a hole through the anode at this small spot, through which the electrons pass to form a collimated beam before reaching a second anode, called the collector. This arrangement is similar to an Einzel lens.

An RF electron gun [1] consists of a Microwave cavity, either single cell or multi-cell, and a cathode. In order to obtain a smaller beam emittance at a given beam current, a photocathode is used. [2] An RF electron gun with a photocathode is called a photoinjector.

A photoinjector based on a "one and a half cells" microwave cavity at a frequency of 2856 MHz. Photoinjector operating at 2856 MHz.jpg
A photoinjector based on a "one and a half cells" microwave cavity at a frequency of 2856 MHz.

Photoinjectors play a leading role in X-ray Free-electron lasers and small beam emittance accelerator physics facilities.

Applications

Schottky-emitter electron source of an Electron microscope Schottky-Emitter 01.jpg
Schottky-emitter electron source of an Electron microscope

The most common use of electron guns is in cathode-ray tubes, which were widely used in computer and television monitors before the advent of flat screen displays. Most color cathode-ray tubes incorporate three electron guns, each one producing a different stream of electrons. Each stream travels through a shadow mask where the electrons will impinge upon either a red, green or blue phosphor to light up a color pixel on the screen. The resultant color that is seen by the viewer will be a combination of these three primary colors.

An electron gun can also be used to ionize particles by adding electrons to, or removing electrons from an atom. This technology is sometimes used in mass spectrometry in a process called electron ionization to ionize vaporized or gaseous particles. More powerful electron guns are used for welding, metal coating, 3D metal printers, metal powder production and vacuum furnaces.

Electron guns are also used in medical applications to produce X-rays using a linac (linear accelerator); a high energy electron beam hits a target, stimulating emission of X-rays.

Electron guns are also used in travelling wave tube amplifiers for microwave frequencies. [3]

Measurement and detection

Electron gun from a travelling wave tube, cutaway through axis to show construction Ekanoner.jpg
Electron gun from a travelling wave tube, cutaway through axis to show construction

A nanocoulombmeter in combination with a Faraday cup can be used to detect and measure the beams emitted from electron gun and ion guns.

Another way to detect electron beams from an electron gun is by using a phosphor screen which will glow when struck by an electron.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cathode-ray tube</span> Vacuum tube often used to display images

A cathode-ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube containing one or more electron guns, which emit electron beams that are manipulated to display images on a phosphorescent screen. The images may represent electrical waveforms on an oscilloscope, a frame of video on an analog television set (TV), digital raster graphics on a computer monitor, or other phenomena like radar targets. A CRT in a TV is commonly called a picture tube. CRTs have also been used as memory devices, in which case the screen is not intended to be visible to an observer. The term cathode ray was used to describe electron beams when they were first discovered, before it was understood that what was emitted from the cathode was a beam of electrons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cathode ray</span> Beam of electrons observed in vacuum tubes

Cathode rays or electron beams (e-beam) are streams of electrons observed in discharge tubes. If an evacuated glass tube is equipped with two electrodes and a voltage is applied, glass behind the positive electrode is observed to glow, due to electrons emitted from the cathode. They were first observed in 1859 by German physicist Julius Plücker and Johann Wilhelm Hittorf, and were named in 1876 by Eugen Goldstein Kathodenstrahlen, or cathode rays. In 1897, British physicist J. J. Thomson showed that cathode rays were composed of a previously unknown negatively charged particle, which was later named the electron. Cathode-ray tubes (CRTs) use a focused beam of electrons deflected by electric or magnetic fields to render an image on a screen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cathode</span> Electrode where reduction takes place

A cathode is the electrode from which a conventional current leaves a polarized electrical device such as a lead-acid battery. This definition can be recalled by using the mnemonic CCD for Cathode Current Departs. A conventional current describes the direction in which positive charges move. Electrons have a negative electrical charge, so the movement of electrons is opposite to that of the conventional current flow. Consequently, the mnemonic cathode current departs also means that electrons flow into the device's cathode from the external circuit. For example, the end of a household battery marked with a + (plus) is the cathode.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vacuum tube</span> Device that controls current between electrodes

A vacuum tube, electron tube, valve, or tube is a device that controls electric current flow in a high vacuum between electrodes to which an electric potential difference has been applied.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fusor</span> An apparatus to create nuclear fusion

A fusor is a device that uses an electric field to heat ions to a temperature at which they undergo nuclear fusion. The machine induces a potential difference between two metal cages, inside a vacuum. Positive ions fall down this voltage drop, building up speed. If they collide in the center, they can fuse. This is one kind of an inertial electrostatic confinement device – a branch of fusion research.

A tetrode is a vacuum tube having four active electrodes. The four electrodes in order from the centre are: a thermionic cathode, first and second grids, and a plate. There are several varieties of tetrodes, the most common being the screen-grid tube and the beam tetrode. In screen-grid tubes and beam tetrodes, the first grid is the control grid and the second grid is the screen grid. In other tetrodes one of the grids is a control grid, while the other may have a variety of functions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cold cathode</span> Type of electrode and part of cold cathode fluorescent lamp.

A cold cathode is a cathode that is not electrically heated by a filament. A cathode may be considered "cold" if it emits more electrons than can be supplied by thermionic emission alone. It is used in gas-discharge lamps, such as neon lamps, discharge tubes, and some types of vacuum tube. The other type of cathode is a hot cathode, which is heated by electric current passing through a filament. A cold cathode does not necessarily operate at a low temperature: it is often heated to its operating temperature by other methods, such as the current passing from the cathode into the gas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Photomultiplier tube</span> Fast, high sensitivity, low noise electronic photon detector

Photomultiplier tubes (photomultipliers or PMTs for short) are extremely sensitive detectors of light in the ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum. They are members of the class of vacuum tubes, more specifically vacuum phototubes. These detectors multiply the current produced by incident light by as much as 100 million times or 108 (i.e., 160 dB), in multiple dynode stages, enabling (for example) individual photons to be detected when the incident flux of light is low.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Klystron</span> Vacuum tube used for amplifying radio waves

A klystron is a specialized linear-beam vacuum tube, invented in 1937 by American electrical engineers Russell and Sigurd Varian, which is used as an amplifier for high radio frequencies, from UHF up into the microwave range. Low-power klystrons are used as oscillators in terrestrial microwave relay communications links, while high-power klystrons are used as output tubes in UHF television transmitters, satellite communication, radar transmitters, and to generate the drive power for modern particle accelerators.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Secondary emission</span> When a particles interactions with a material cause it to emit new particles

In particle physics, secondary emission is a phenomenon where primary incident particles of sufficient energy, when hitting a surface or passing through some material, induce the emission of secondary particles. The term often refers to the emission of electrons when charged particles like electrons or ions in a vacuum tube strike a metal surface; these are called secondary electrons. In this case, the number of secondary electrons emitted per incident particle is called secondary emission yield. If the secondary particles are ions, the effect is termed secondary ion emission. Secondary electron emission is used in photomultiplier tubes and image intensifier tubes to amplify the small number of photoelectrons produced by photoemission, making the tube more sensitive. It also occurs as an undesirable side effect in electronic vacuum tubes when electrons from the cathode strike the anode, and can cause parasitic oscillation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Photocathode</span>

A photocathode is a surface engineered to convert light (photons) into electrons using the photoelectric effect. Photocathodes are important in accelerator physics where they are utilised in a photoinjector to generate high brightness electron beams. Electron beams generated with photocathodes are commonly used for free electron lasers and for ultrafast electron diffraction. Photocathodes are also commonly used as the negatively charged electrode in a light detection device such as a photomultiplier, phototube and image intensifier.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glow discharge</span> Plasma formed by passage of current through gas

A glow discharge is a plasma formed by the passage of electric current through a gas. It is often created by applying a voltage between two electrodes in a glass tube containing a low-pressure gas. When the voltage exceeds a value called the striking voltage, the gas ionization becomes self-sustaining, and the tube glows with a colored light. The color depends on the gas used.

A vacuum arc can arise when the surfaces of metal electrodes in contact with a good vacuum begin to emit electrons either through heating or in an electric field that is sufficient to cause field electron emission. Once initiated, a vacuum arc can persist, since the freed particles gain kinetic energy from the electric field, heating the metal surfaces through high-speed particle collisions. This process can create an incandescent cathode spot, which frees more particles, thereby sustaining the arc. At sufficiently high currents an incandescent anode spot may also be formed.

A particle beam is a stream of charged or neutral particles. In particle accelerators, these particles can move with a velocity close to the speed of light. There is a difference between the creation and control of charged particle beams and neutral particle beams, as only the first type can be manipulated to a sufficient extent by devices based on electromagnetism. The manipulation and diagnostics of charged particle beams at high kinetic energies using particle accelerators are main topics of accelerator physics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crookes tube</span> Early type of cathode ray tube

A Crookes tube is an early experimental electrical discharge tube, with partial vacuum, invented by English physicist William Crookes and others around 1869–1875, in which cathode rays, streams of electrons, were discovered.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Albert W. Hull</span> American physicist and electrical engineer (1880–1966)

Albert Wallace Hull was an American physicist and electrical engineer who made contributions to the development of vacuum tubes, and invented the magnetron. He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wehnelt cylinder</span> Electrode in the electron gun assembly of some thermionic devices

A Wehnelt cylinder is an electrode in the electron gun assembly of some thermionic devices, used for focusing and control of the electron beam. It is named after Arthur Rudolph Berthold Wehnelt, a German physicist, who invented it during the years 1902 and 1903. Wehnelt cylinders are found in the electron guns of cathode ray tubes and electron microscopes, and in other applications where a thin, well-focused electron beam is required.

Aquadag is a trade name for a water-based colloidal graphite coating commonly used in cathode ray tubes (CRTs). It is manufactured by Acheson Industries, a subsidiary of ICI. The name is a shortened form of "Aqueous Deflocculated Acheson Graphite", but has become a generic term for conductive graphite coatings used in vacuum tubes. Other related products include Oildag, Electrodag and Molydag. Deflocculation refers to the distribution of powdered high purity graphite in an aqueous solution containing approximately 2% to 10% by weight of various Tannic/Gallotannic acid variants and separating the colloidal graphite suspension from the remaining unsuspended graphite particulates. The product names are often printed with DAG in upper case. It is used as an electrically conductive coating on insulating surfaces, and as a lubricant.

The inductive output tube (IOT) or klystrode is a variety of linear-beam vacuum tube, similar to a klystron, used as a power amplifier for high frequency radio waves. It evolved in the 1980s to meet increasing efficiency requirements for high-power RF amplifiers in radio transmitters. The primary commercial use of IOTs is in UHF television transmitters, where they have mostly replaced klystrons because of their higher efficiencies and smaller size. IOTs are also used in particle accelerators. They are capable of producing power output up to about 30 kW continuous and 7 MW pulsed and power gains of 20–23 dB at frequencies up to about a gigahertz.

A photoinjector is a type of source for intense electron beams which relies on the photoelectric effect. A laser pulse incident onto the cathode of a photoinjector drives electrons out of it, and into the accelerating field of the electron gun. In comparison with the widespread thermionic electron gun, photoinjectors produce electron beams of higher brightness, which means more particles packed into smaller volume of phase space. Photoinjectors serve as the main electron source for single-pass synchrotron light sources, such as free-electron lasers and for ultrafast electron diffraction setups. The first RF photoinjector was developed in 1985 at Los Alamos National Laboratory and used as the source for a free-electron-laser experiment. High-brightness electron beams produced by photoinjectors are used directly or indirectly to probe the molecular, atomic and nuclear structure of matter for fundamental research, as well as material characterization.

References

  1. H.G. Kirk, R. Miller, D. Yeremian, Electron guns and pre-injectors, pp. 99-103, in A. W. Chao and M. Tigner, Editors, "Accelerator Physics and Engineering" World Scientific, Singapore, 1998
  2. I. Ben-Zvi, photoinjectors, pp. 158-175, in A. W. Chao, H.O. Moser and Z. Zhao, Editors, "Accelerator Physics and Technology Applications" World Scientific, Singapore, 2004
  3. Copeland, Jack; Haeff, Andre A. (September 2015). "The True History of the Traveling Wave Tube". IEEE Spectrum. 52 (9): 38–43. doi:10.1109/MSPEC.2015.7226611. S2CID   36963575.