Freedom of religion in Montenegro refers to the extent to which people in Montenegro are freely able to practice their religious beliefs, taking into account both government policies and societal attitudes toward religious groups. Montenegro's laws guarantee the freedom of religion and outlaw several forms of religious discrimination, as well as establishing that there is no state religion in Montenegro. The government provides some funding to religious groups.
Montenegro has experienced less religious conflict than the other former Yugoslavian states, and has historically had a high degree of religious tolerance and diversity. There is, however, an outstanding dispute between the Serbian Orthodox Church and the Montenegrin Orthodox Church, as both churches lay claim to the country's many Orthodox religious sites and dispute each other's legitimacy.[1]
According to a 2008 study, the government of Montenegro engages in a very small amount of discrimination against its Muslim minority and breakaway Orthodox groups present in the country.[2] However, according to a 2017 survey conducted by the Council of Europe in cooperation with the Office of the Ombudsperson of Montenegro, 45% of respondents reported having experienced religious discrimination.[1]
In 2023, the country was scored 3 out of 4 for religious freedom.[3]
Demographics
According to the 2011 census, approximately 72 percent of the population is Orthodox, belonging either to the Serbian Orthodox Church or the Montenegrin Orthodox Church. Local media estimate that the Serbian church accounts for 70 percent of the Orthodox population, while the Montenegrin church makes up the remaining 30 percent. The census reports 19.1 percent of the population is Muslim, 3.4 percent Roman Catholic, and 1.2 percent atheist. Additionally, 2.6 percent of respondents did not provide a response, and several other groups, including Seventh-day Adventists (registered locally as the Christian Adventist Church), Buddhists, Jehovah’s Witnesses, other Christians, and agnostics together account for less than 1 percent of the population.
According to the World Jewish Congress, there were approximately 400 to 500 Jews in the country in 2022.[4]
There is a strong correlation between ethnicity and religion: ethnic Montenegrins and ethnic Serbs are generally associated with the Montenegrin and Serbian Orthodox churches respectively, ethnic Albanians with Islam or Catholicism, and ethnic Croats with the Catholic Church. Ethnic Bosniaks and remaining ethnic Muslims (Muslimani) are also adherents of Islam, and they live mainly along the eastern and northern borders with Albania, Kosovo, and Serbia. [1]
Montenegro has historically been at the crossroads of different cultural regions, and this has shaped its unique form of co-existence between Muslim and Christian populations.[5] For much of the second half of the 20th century, Montenegro was part of Yugoslavia, which established a nominally secular state (although at times it displayed favoritism toward the Serbian Orthodox Church), and did not engage in anti-religious campaigns to the extent of other countries in the Eastern Bloc.[6]
Despite tensions between religious groups during the Bosnian War, Montenegro remained fairly stable, mainly due its population having a historic perspective on religious tolerance and faith diversity.[7] Following the dissolution of Yugoslavia in 1992, Montenegro was at first part of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, later renamed Serbia and Montenegro. It was at this point that the Montenegrin Orthodox Church began to be established, splitting from the Serbian Orthodox Church, a process which would be completed in 2000. The Serbian Church considered the establishment of the Montenegrin Church to be "non-canonical" and "political" and refused to recognize it. Since Montenegro's independence from Serbia in 2006, both churches have been supported by sections of Montenegrin society and the government, although the Serbian Church also receives support from Serbia.[8] Disputes between the churches are ongoing, as both churches lay claim to 750 religious sites in Montenegro.[1] According to a book published by an academic at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, this conflict is an attempt by the Serbian Orthodox Church to suppress recognition of the Montenegrin Orthodox Church in order to further Serbian national interests.[9]
In 2012 a protocol passed that recognizes Islam as an official religion in Montenegro, ensures that halal foods will be served at military facilities, hospitals, dormitories and all social facilities; and that Muslim women will be permitted to wear headscarves in schools and at public institutions, as well as ensuring that Muslims have the right to take Fridays off work for the Jumu'ah (Friday)-prayer.[10]
In December 2019, the Montenegrin parliament adopted a new Law on the Freedom of Religion or Belief and the Legal Status of Religious Communities, replacing prior legislation that had been adopted in 1977 as part of Yugoslavia. The Serbian Orthodox Church accused the new legislation of being discriminatory, specifically raising concerns that it would allow the government to confiscate church property. Ensuing controversy led to public demonstrations of several tens of thousands of people, as well as disruption in parliament by ministers belonging to the Democratic Front trying to prevent the passage of the new law. Representatives of other religious groups stated some concerns with the new law, but recognized that the primary point of contention at the time only affected the Serbian Orthodox Church. The Montenegrin Orthodox Church was the only group to openly welcome the passing of the new law.[11]
Legal framework
The constitution guarantees the freedom of religion as well as the right to change one’s religion, as well as the right to privacy with respect to disclosing one's religion. The constitution states the freedom to express religious beliefs may be restricted only if required to protect the life and health of the public, peace and order, or other rights guaranteed by the constitution. It specifies there is no state religion and guarantees equality and freedom for all religious communities in religious activities and affairs.[12]
The law forbids “the abuse of religious communities or their religious sites for political purposes.”[4]
The constitution exempts conscientious objectors, including those objecting for religious reasons, from military service. Alternative service is not required.[4] A 2012 law establishes that Muslim religious needs, such as halal food or the right to not work on Fridays, are provided for in the military and public institutions.[10]
The constitution states foreign nationals fearing persecution in their home countries on the grounds of religion have the right to request asylum.[1]
Legislation against the violation of religious freedom
The constitution permits courts to prevent propagation of religious hatred or discrimination and prohibits organizations instigating religious hatred and intolerance.[4]
The criminal code prescribes a fine between 200 euros and 16,000 euros or up to two years’ imprisonment for restricting an individual’s freedom to exercise a religious belief or membership in a religious group, or for preventing or obstructing the performance of religious rites. The code also provides for a fine of between 600 euros and 8,000 euros or a maximum of one year in prison for coercing another person to declare his or her religious beliefs. Any government official found guilty of these crimes may receive a sentence of up to three years in prison.[1]
The law prohibits discrimination, including on religious grounds. Offenses are punishable by a prison term of six months to five years. The Office of the Protector of Human Rights (ombudsman) is responsible for combating discrimination and human rights violations, including those against religious freedom, by government agencies. It may investigate complaints of religious discrimination and, if it finds a violation, may request remedial measures. Failure to comply with the ombudsman’s request for corrective action within a defined period is punishable by fines of 500 to 2,500 euros. Generally, government agencies implement the ombudsman’s recommendations, although often with delays. If necessary, the courts may enforce the recommendations.[1]
Registration process for religious organizations
The law provides for the recognition of religious groups through registration with local and federal authorities, although religious groups that existed before 1977 are not obligated to register in order to obtain recognition. New religious groups must register with local police within 15 days of their establishment to receive the status of a legal entity, although there is no penalty specified for failing to do so. The police must then file this registration with the Ministry of Interior, which maintains a list of all religious organizations in the country. To register, a religious group must provide its name and organizing documents, the names of its officials, the address of the group’s headquarters, and the location(s) where religious services will be performed. Registration entitles groups to own property, hold bank accounts in their own name, and receive a tax exemption for donations and sales of goods or services directly related to their religious activities; however, lack of registration or recognition does not affect a group’s ability to conduct religious activities. An unregistered religious community may register as another type of organization in order to open a bank account, but may not receive the tax exemptions granted to registered religious groups.[1]
Coordination between religious groups and the government
The government has agreements with the Islamic and Jewish Communities and the Holy See further defining the legal status of the respective groups and regulating their relationship with the state. In the agreement with the Holy See, the government recognizes Catholic canon law as the Church’s legal framework and outlines the Church’s property rights. The agreements with the Islamic and Jewish Communities have similar provisions. The agreements establish commissions between each of the three religious communities and the government. There are no similar agreements with other recognized religious groups.[4]
The Directorate for Relations with Religious Communities within the Ministry of Human and Minority Rights (MHMR) regulates relations between state agencies and religious groups, and is charged with protecting the free exercise of religion and advancing interfaith cooperation and understanding. The MHMR provides some funds to religious communities and is in charge of communication between the government and the religious communities. The ministry is also in charge of drafting new legislation defining the status and rights of religious organizations.[4]
Education
By law, religion may not be taught in public primary or secondary schools. The Islamic community operates one private madrassa at the secondary school level, and the SOC operates one secondary school, both of which follow the state curriculum in nonreligious matters.[4]
Government practices
The Ministry of Human and Minority Rights provides funding to some religious groups, which they can use to maintain religious shrines, for education or cultural projects, or to pay for social and medical insurance for clergy. Both registered and unregistered religious communities are eligible to apply for this funding. For the first nine months of 2017, the Montenegrin Orthodox Church received 49,015 euros, the Islamic Community of Montenegro 52,888 euros, the Serbian Orthodox Church 30,183 euros, the Jewish community 10,000 euros, and the Catholic Church 4,000 euros. Recognized religious communities also continued to receive in-kind assistance, such as property on which to build houses of worship, from other government ministries and from local governments.[4]
As of 2022, government has not provided restitution of religious properties expropriated by the former government of Yugoslavia. Government officials have said that a draft law on religious communities would address restitution issues.[4]
In 2019, the government adopted the Law on Freedom of Religion or Belief and the Legal Status of Religious Communities; the Serbian Orthodox Church said that its wording could allow the transfer of SOC buildings and other property to the state and there were street protests against this law. By the end of the year, the government removed property rights provision from the law.[3]
According to a 2008 study, Montenegro engages in a very small amount of discrimination against its Muslim minority and breakaway Orthodox groups present in the country. This level of discrimination was consistent with a previous analysis from 1990.[2]
Conflict between the Serbian and Montenegrin Orthodox Churches
There are ongoing disputes between the Serbian and Montenegrin Orthodox Churches over control of 750 Orthodox religious sites in the country. Both groups claim to be the "true" Orthodox Church of Montenegro, and hold religious ceremonies separately. Police forces have provided security for such events. This dispute dates back to the original establishment of the Montenegrin Orthodox Church as a separate entity, a process which began in 1993 and which was completed in 2000. Since 2011, members of both churches have been barred from celebrating the transfiguration of Christ at the Church of the Transfiguration of Jesus Christ in Ivanova Korita near the historical capital of Cetinje.[1]
Societal attitudes
A survey published in March 2017 and carried out by the Council of Europe and the Office of the Ombudsperson, as part of the council’s “Support to the National Institutions in Preventing Discrimination in Montenegro” project, found increases in perceptions of religious discrimination since the previous study (2015) across all five areas surveyed (employment, education, health care, public services, and culture). Perceptions of discrimination based on religion were highest in relation to employment, where 45.7 percent of respondents reported experiencing religious discrimination, up from 38 percent in 2015. According to the survey, perception of discrimination were highest by a significant margin among Serbian Orthodox Church members, followed by Catholics, those with no religious affiliation, and Muslims.[1]
In 2019, representatives of the Serbian Orthodox Church stated that they were barred from performing ceremonies at the Church of St. Basil of Ostrog in Martinici, Gusinje, due to protests by local residents. The town is 94% Muslim. The Serbian Orthodox Church also claimed that members of local government threatened to burn down the church if it was restored.[11]
"Muslims" is a designation for the ethnoreligious group of Serbo-Croatian-speaking Muslims and people of Muslim heritage, inhabiting mostly the territory of the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The term, adopted in the 1971 Constitution of Yugoslavia, groups together a number of distinct South Slavic communities of Islamic ethnocultural tradition. Prior to 1993, a vast majority of present-day Bosniaks self-identified as ethnic Muslims, along with some smaller groups of different ethnicity, such as Gorani and Torbeši. This designation did not include Yugoslav non-Slavic Muslims, such as Turks, some Romani people and majority of Albanians.
The demographic history of Montenegro can be shown through census results and official documents which mention demographic composition.
Moldova's constitution provides for freedom of religion and complete separation of church and state, though the constitution cites the "exceptional importance" of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Discrimination on the basis of religious affiliation is illegal, and incitement to religious and ethnic hatred was made illegal in May 2022. Religion in Moldova is dominated by the Eastern Orthodox branch of Christianity. According to the 2014 Moldovan census, 90 per cent of the country reported to be of the Eastern Orthodox Christian faith. Of this number, around eighty to 90 per cent of Orthodox Moldovans belong to the Moldovan Orthodox Church which is subordinate to the Russian Orthodox Church, and has played a powerful role in deepening Russia's influence in Moldova. The remaining 10–20 per cent of Orthodox Moldovans belong to the Metropolis of Bessarabia, which is subordinate to the Romanian Orthodox Church.
Serbia has been traditionally a Christian country since the Christianization of Serbs by Clement of Ohrid and Saint Naum in the 9th century. The dominant confession is Eastern Orthodoxy in the fold of Serbian Orthodox Church.
Eastern Orthodox Christianity is largest religion in Montenegro, but there are also sizeable numbers of adherents of both Catholic Christianity and Islam.
Amfilohije was a bishop of the Serbian Orthodox Church, theologian, university professor, author and translator. He was first the Bishop of Banat between 1985 and 1990, and then the Metropolitan Bishop of Montenegro and the Littoral from 1990, until his death. As the metropolitan bishop, he was the primate of the Serbian Orthodox Church in Montenegro. He was one of the most influential leaders of the Serbian Church, and was among the three candidates for the Serbian patriarchate both in 1990 and 2010.
The dominant religion in Slovenia is Christianity, primarily the Catholic Church, which is the largest Christian denomination in the country. Other Christian groups having significant followings in the country include Eastern Orthodoxy and Protestantism (Lutheranism). Islam, Judaism and Hinduism are small minorities in Slovenia. About 18% of the population are either agnostic or atheist.
The Turkmen of Turkmenistan, are predominantly Muslims. According the U.S. Department of State's International Religious Freedom Report for 2022,
According to U.S. government estimates, the country is 89 percent Muslim, 9 percent Eastern Orthodox, and 2 percent other. There are small communities of Jehovah's Witnesses, Shia Muslims, Baha’is, Roman Catholics, the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, and evangelical Christians, including Baptists and Pentecostals. Most ethnic Russians and Armenians identify as Orthodox Christian and generally are members of the Russian Orthodox Church or Armenian Apostolic Church. Some ethnic Russians and Armenians are also members of smaller Protestant groups. There are small pockets of Shia Muslims, consisting largely of ethnic Iranians, Azeris, and Kurds, some located in Ashgabat, with others along the border with Iran and in the western city of Turkmenbashy.
Islam is the main religion in Kyrgyzstan and the constitution guarantees freedom of religion.
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion.
The most widely professed religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina is Islam and the second biggest religion is Christianity. Nearly all the Muslims of Bosnia are followers of the Sunni denomination of Islam; the majority of Sunnis follow the Hanafi legal school of thought (fiqh) and Maturidi theological school of thought (kalām). Bosniaks are generally associated with Islam, Bosnian Croats with the Roman Catholic Church, and Bosnian Serbs with the Serbian Orthodox Church. The State Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) and the entity Constitutions of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska provide for freedom of religion, and the Government generally respects this right in ethnically integrated areas or in areas where government officials are of the majority religion; the state-level Law on Religious Freedom also provides comprehensive rights to religious communities. However, local authorities sometimes restricted the right to worship of adherents of religious groups in areas where such persons are in the minority.
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion.
In North Macedonia, the most common religion is Eastern Orthodox Christianity, practiced mainly by ethnic Macedonians, Serbians, Vlakhs, and Romanis. The vast majority of the Eastern Orthodox in the country belong to the Macedonian Orthodox Church, which declared autocephaly from the Serbian Orthodox Church in 1967.
Christianity is the most widely professed religion in Croatia, representing 87.4% of the total population. A large majority of the Croatian population declare themselves to be members of the Catholic Church.
In late December 2019, a wave of protests started against the controversial, newly adopted "Law on Freedom of Religion or Belief and the Legal Status of Religious Communities" which effectively transferred ownership of church buildings and estates built before 1918 from the Serbian Orthodox Church in Montenegro to the Montenegrin state. The Serbian Orthodox Church in Montenegro, which owned 66 mainly medieval monasteries, dozens of churches and other real estate there, insisted the state wanted to impound its assets, while Pro-Western Montenegro's president Milo Đukanović, accused the Serbian church of promoting pro-Serb policies that are aimed at "undermining Montenegrin statehood".
Freedom of religion in North Macedonia refers to the extent to which people in North Macedonia are freely able to practice their religious beliefs, taking into account both government policies and societal attitudes toward religious groups.
The status of religious freedom in Europe varies from country to country. States can differ based on whether or not they guarantee equal treatment under law for followers of different religions, whether they establish a state religion, the extent to which religious organizations operating within the country are policed, and the extent to which religious law is used as a basis for the country's legal code.
Freedom of religion in Serbia refers to the extent to which people in Serbia are freely able to practice their religious beliefs, taking into account both government policies and societal attitudes toward religious groups.
Freedom of religion in Slovakia refers to the extent to which people in Slovakia are freely able to practice their religious beliefs, taking into account both government policies and societal attitudes toward religious groups.
Freedom of religion in Slovenia refers to the extent to which people in Slovenia are freely able to practice their religious beliefs, taking into account both government policies and societal attitudes toward religious groups.
↑ Pettifer, James (2007). Strengthening Religious Tolerance for a Secure Civil Society in Albania and the Southern Balkans. IOS Press. ISBN978-1-58603-779-6.
↑ Larkin, Barbara (2001). International Religious Freedom 2000: Annual Report: Submitted by the U.S. Department Of State. Diane Publishing. ISBN978-0-7567-1229-7.
↑ Zdravkovski, Aleksander; Morrison, Kenneth (2014), Ramet, Sabrina P. (ed.), "The Orthodox Churches of Macedonia and Montenegro: The Quest for Autocephaly", Religion and Politics in Post-Socialist Central and Southeastern Europe: Challenges since 1989, Palgrave Studies in Religion, Politics, and Policy, Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp.240–262, doi:10.1057/9781137330727_10, ISBN9781137330727
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