The geology of the Czech Republic is very tectonically complex, split between the Western Carpathian Mountains and the Bohemian Massif. [1]
The geologic development of the territory of the Czech Republic was influenced by the cratonization of the Bohemian Massif at the end of the Permian with simultaneous orogenic activation of the Carpathian basement.
The oldest elements of the Bohemian Massif remain poorly understood because of their allochthonous position in Pan-African and Variscan units. The Svetlik orthogneiss in southern Bohemia is 2.1 billion years old and the Dobra granite gneiss is 1.37 billion years old. Together, they may be the oldest elements of the Bohemian Massif. The Svetlik orthogneiss occurring between the Monotonous and Varied groups of the Moldanubian Zone might correspond to Gondwana-derived terrane (the Penteverian crust formed 2.1 billion years ago). The age of the Dobra Gneiss suggests its possible origin as Laurentia or Baltica.
The Pan-African orogenic belt formed 800-570 million years ago between Laurentia and Gondwana as well as microcontinent segments. The belt can be traced to the Bohemian Massif. For instance, Precambrian metamorphic rocks (formed the 580 to 550 million years ago) act as a footwall of early Cambrian conglomerates in the Lugian Pluton; the 660 to 520 million year old Ma Brno pluton is similar. Cadomian, Pan-African 600 million year old overprinting on zircons is found in many parts of Europe.
In addition to debates about the Pan-African orogeny, the Caledonian orogeny in the Bohemian Massif is poorly understood. In the Saxothuringian Zone and in the major part of the Lugian Domain, there is no break at the Silurian-Devonian boundary. Sedimentary deposition began in the early Cambrian and elsewhere in the Ordovician and ended by the mid-Carboniferous orogeny 330 to 320 million years ago. The few indications of the Silurian/Devonian hiatus in the northern part of the Lugian Domain are not of regional significance. Older ages of the amphibolite (ophiolite) complex of the Marinaska Lazne (486 Ma) point to an early Ordovician extension [2] and c. 500 Ma granite gneisses of the Lugian Domain [3] early Ordovician magmatic activity, However, these ages have to be considered as minimum ones.
In the Brunovistulian terrane, the transgression of early Devonian conglomerates on the pre-Devonian of rome precisely the Pan-African basement speaks favorably of its geotectonic independence on W units of the Bohemian Massif.[ incomprehensible ]
At the time of oceanic subduction of the Rhenohercynian Zone below the Saxothuringian Zone, areas of the Bohemian Massif were reworked. Moldanubian Zone rocks experienced very intensive reconstruction, producing mantle-crust interaction granulite and eclogite facies rocks. Nappe and shear tectonics appeared the Moldanubian Zone as it was joined with the Moravosilesicum and Brunovistulian to other segments of the Bohemian Massif.
A platform cycle began at the Permian-Triassic boundary with periodic erosion and occasional marine transgressions into the Late Cretaceous and the Paleogene, coupled with alkali volcanic activity. Radial faulting occurred during the Alpine orogeny. Pre-Triassic development of the Czech West Carphathians is related to the Brunovistulian. The pre-Devonian basement and the sedimentary cover of the Brunovistulian underlie the Mesozoic and Cenozoic formations in the West Carpathians. Limestones in the south are from the Triassic and Jurassic. To the north is an allochthonous ocean environment, to the north of the Klippen Belt. The Outer Flysch Carpathians formed after the main Carpathian Orogeny in the Late Cretaceous, showing synorogenic sedimentary sequences from Cretaceous-Oligocene age that move northward as far as the Carpathian Foredeep. The last thrusting in late Miocene brought erosion, local uplifting and subsidence in Quaternary depressions. [4]
Resource such as silver, gold and iron ore have been mined since the Middle Ages. The Bohemian Massif and the Western Carpathians are the main metallogenic zones. The Bohemian Massif is characterized by complex, mostly epigenetic, mineralization of Variscan age including gold, tin, uranium, silver, lead, zinc and limited copper together black coal deposits from both the Carboniferous and Cenozoic. The West Carpathians have no resources. A few oil fields exist in the Czech Republic, such as the Hodonin field in the Vienna Basin.
The Moldanubian metallogenic province covers most of the Moldanubian Zone. In the Moldanubian subprovince, lead and zinc form as vein deposits with silver in the contact aureole of the Central Moldanubian Pluton and Central Bohemian Pluton (including ore districts such as Kutna Hora, Prribram and Jihlava). Vein deposits of gold ores and the disseminated gold deposit at Mokrsko, south of Prague are limited to the western contact with the Central Bohemian Pluton. Uranium ore deposits in the Pribram district or near the contact of the Bohemicum-Moldanubian Zone, northeast of the Cesky les Tachov or at the contact of the Central Moldanubian Pluton have been investigated since the 1980s. An unusual zinc-copper ore deposit was mined in the last after 1982 in the Ransko gabbro-peridotite massif which also shows some nickel sulfide mineralization.
The Krkonose Mountains metallogenic subprovince in the Lugicoum area, centers on the Krkonose Pluton and the Orlicke hory Mountains-Klodzko subprovince. It has highly variable deposits of little economic importance including lead, zinc, copper and gold. [5]
The Variscan or Hercynianorogeny was a geologic mountain-building event caused by Late Paleozoic continental collision between Euramerica (Laurussia) and Gondwana to form the supercontinent of Pangaea.
The Saxothuringian Zone, Saxo-Thuringian zone or Saxothuringicum is in geology a structural or tectonic zone in the Hercynian or Variscan orogen of central and western Europe. Because rocks of Hercynian age are in most places covered by younger strata, the zone is not everywhere visible at the surface. Places where it crops out are the northern Bohemian Massif, the Spessart, the Odenwald, the northern parts of the Black Forest and Vosges and the southern part of the Taunus. West of the Vosges terranes on both sides of the English Channel are also seen as part of the zone, for example the Lizard complex in Cornwall or the Léon Zone of the Armorican Massif (Brittany).
The Bohemian Massif is a geomorphological province in Central Europe. It is a large massif stretching over most of the Czech Republic, eastern Germany, southern Poland and northern Austria.
The Moldanubian Zone is in the regional geology of Europe a tectonic zone formed during the Variscan or Hercynian Orogeny. The Moldanubian Zone crops out in the Bohemian Massif and the southern part of the Black Forest and Vosges and contains the highest grade metamorphic rocks of Variscan age in Europe.
The Massif Central is one of the two large basement massifs in France, the other being the Armorican Massif. The Massif Central's geological evolution started in the late Neoproterozoic and continues to this day. It has been shaped mainly by the Caledonian orogeny and the Variscan orogeny. The Alpine orogeny has also left its imprints, probably causing the important Cenozoic volcanism. The Massif Central has a very long geological history, underlined by zircon ages dating back into the Archaean 3 billion years ago. Structurally it consists mainly of stacked metamorphic basement nappes.
The Pyrenees are a 430-kilometre-long, roughly east–west striking, intracontinental mountain chain that divide France, Spain, and Andorra. The belt has an extended, polycyclic geological evolution dating back to the Precambrian. The chain's present configuration is due to the collision between the microcontinent Iberia and the southwestern promontory of the European Plate. The two continents were approaching each other since the onset of the Upper Cretaceous (Albian/Cenomanian) about 100 million years ago and were consequently colliding during the Paleogene (Eocene/Oligocene) 55 to 25 million years ago. After its uplift, the chain experienced intense erosion and isostatic readjustments. A cross-section through the chain shows an asymmetric flower-like structure with steeper dips on the French side. The Pyrenees are not solely the result of compressional forces, but also show an important sinistral shearing.
The geology of Germany is heavily influenced by several phases of orogeny in the Paleozoic and the Cenozoic, by sedimentation in shelf seas and epicontinental seas and on plains in the Permian and Mesozoic as well as by the Quaternary glaciations.
The geology of Morocco formed beginning up to two billion years ago, in the Paleoproterozoic and potentially even earlier. It was affected by the Pan-African orogeny, although the later Hercynian orogeny produced fewer changes and left the Maseta Domain, a large area of remnant Paleozoic massifs. During the Paleozoic, extensive sedimentary deposits preserved marine fossils. Throughout the Mesozoic, the rifting apart of Pangaea to form the Atlantic Ocean created basins and fault blocks, which were blanketed in terrestrial and marine sediments—particularly as a major marine transgression flooded much of the region. In the Cenozoic, a microcontinent covered in sedimentary rocks from the Triassic and Cretaceous collided with northern Morocco, forming the Rif region. Morocco has extensive phosphate and salt reserves, as well as resources such as lead, zinc, copper and silver.
The geology of Bosnia & Herzegovina is the study of rocks, minerals, water, landforms and geologic history in the country. The oldest rocks exposed at or near the surface date to the Paleozoic and the Precambrian geologic history of the region remains poorly understood. Complex assemblages of flysch, ophiolite, mélange and igneous plutons together with thick sedimentary units are a defining characteristic of the Dinaric Alps, also known as the Dinaride Mountains, which dominate much of the country's landscape.
The geology of Ukraine is the regional study of rocks, minerals, tectonics, natural resources and groundwater in the country. The oldest rocks in the region are part of the Ukrainian Shield and formed more than 2.5 billion years ago in the Archean eon of the Precambrian. Extensive tectonic evolution and numerous orogeny mountain building events fractured the crust into numerous block, horsts, grabens and depressions and Ukraine was intermittently flooded as the crust downwarped during much of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and early Cenozoic, before the formation of the Alps and Carpathians defined much of its current topography and tectonics. Ukraine was impacted by the Pleistocene glaciations within the last several hundred thousand years. The country has numerous metal deposits as well as minerals, building stone and high-quality industrial sands.
The geology of Austria consists of Precambrian rocks and minerals together with younger marine sedimentary rocks uplifted by the Alpine orogeny.
The geology of North Macedonia includes the study of rocks dating to the Precambrian and a wide array of volcanic, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks formed in the last 539 million years.
The geology of Kazakhstan includes extensive basement rocks from the Precambrian and widespread Paleozoic rocks, as well as sediments formed in rift basins during the Mesozoic.
The geology of South Korea includes rocks dating to the Archean and two large massifs of metamorphic rock as the crystalline basement, overlain by thick sedimentary sequences, younger metamorphic rocks and volcanic deposits. Although extent is small, Geology is diverse, and there are diverse rocks that were formed during the Precambrian to Cenozoic Era in the Korea Peninsula.
The geology of Thailand includes deep crystalline metamorphic basement rocks, overlain by extensive sandstone, limestone, turbidites and some volcanic rocks. The region experienced complicated tectonics during the Paleozoic, long-running shallow water conditions and then renewed uplift and erosion in the past several million years ago.
The geology of Bulgaria consists of two major structural features. The Rhodope Massif in southern Bulgaria is made up of Archean, Proterozoic and Cambrian rocks and is a sub-province of the Thracian-Anatolian polymetallic province. It has dropped down, faulted basins filled with Cenozoic sediments and volcanic rocks. The Moesian Platform to the north extends into Romania and has Paleozoic rocks covered by rocks from the Mesozoic, typically buried by thick Danube River valley Quaternary sediments. In places, the Moesian Platform has small oil and gas fields. Bulgaria is a country in southeastern Europe. It is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and North Macedonia to the west, Greece and Turkey to the south, and the Black Sea to the east.
The geology of Romania is structurally complex, with evidence of past crustal movements and the incorporation of different blocks or platforms to the edge of Europe, driving recent mountain building of the Carpathian Mountains. Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the southeast, Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, and Moldova to the east.
The geology of Lithuania consists of ancient Proterozoic basement rock overlain by thick sequences of Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic marine sedimentary rocks, with some oil reserves, abundant limestone, dolomite, phosphorite and glauconite. Lithuania is a country in the Baltic region of northern-eastern Europe.
The geology of Greece is highly structurally complex due to its position at the junction between the European and African tectonic plates.
The geology of Italy includes mountain ranges such as the Alps and the Apennines formed from the uplift of igneous and primarily marine sedimentary rocks all formed since the Paleozoic. Some active volcanoes are located in Insular Italy.