Hylaeus (bee)

Last updated

Hylaeus
Hymenoptera fg01 20060826 Schwanheimer Duene.jpg
Hylaeus sp.
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Colletidae
Subfamily: Hylaeinae
Genus: Hylaeus
Fabricius, 1793
Subgenera(Ikudome, 1989)

~44

Hylaeus is a large (over 500 species) and diverse cosmopolitan genus within the bee family Colletidae. This genus is also known as the yellow-faced bees or masked bees. [1] [2] This genus is the only truly globally distributed colletid, occurring on all continents except Antarctica. [3]

Contents

Description

The genus of bees consists of generally small, black and yellow/white wasp-like species. The resemblance to wasps is enhanced by the absence of a scopa, which is atypical among bees. The body form of this genus is described as hylaeiform - slender, the hairs inconspicuous without magnification; scopa inconspicuous or absent. [4]

Males have an intermediate glossal shape with a small to distinct median apical glossal point. [4]

Hylaeus carry pollen in the crop, rather than externally, and regurgitate it into the cell where it will be used as larval food. Like most colletids, the liquid provisions are sealed inside a membranous cellophane-like cell lining.

Nests are typically in dead twigs or plant stems, or other similarly small natural cavities, rather than constructing or excavating their own nests as in many other bees.

Some species of Hylaeus have been associated with strong scents. In particular, European species such as Hylaeus prosopis are characterised by having a strong "lemon-like" scent. Further investigation has attributed this scent to a substance generated by the manibular glands of both males and females, composed of neral and geranial. It is believed this substance is used as a defensive secretion and/or a social pheromone. [5]

Hylaeus Subgenera

At least 44 subgenera of Hylaeus are known in the world. These have been categorized geographically as follows by Ikudome (1989): [6]

Distribution and status

A significant diversity of Hylaeus is found in Hawai'i — approximately sixty species are recorded as living there. Hylaeus are the only bees considered native to the islands and most of those are unique to the island chain; the diversity of this genus is far greater in Hawai'i than in all of mainland North America. [7] [8] Many of them are species of concern, and some recorded there are possibly extinct. For example, H. finitimus was last collected 100 years ago, and only ever seen on the island of Kauai. [9]

The Hawaiian bee population and diversity is somewhat fluid — within the past ten to twenty years several Hylaeus species have been found and identified on the islands as new to science. [7] In October 2016, seven species were officially listed as endangered by U. S. Fish & Wildlife, the first bees to ever be placed on the endangered species list. [10] [11]

North America

America

A Schwarz's Masked Bee (Hylaeus schwarzii) observed foraging in Coconut Creek, Florida. Schwarz's Masked Bee.jpg
A Schwarz's Masked Bee (Hylaeus schwarzii) observed foraging in Coconut Creek, Florida.

There are currently an estimated 130 species of Hylaeus in America. [12]

Several species have been accidentally introduced to the country. This includes: Hylaeus leptocephalus found throughout the country; Hylaeus hyalinatus found in urban New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania; Hylaeus punctatus found in central California, Mid-Atlantic states, the Chicago region and Denver area; and Hylaeus (Prosopis) variegates in the greater New York city region. [13]

One masked bee of interest in the country is Hylaeus lunicraterius. This bee is only recorded at the Craters of the Moon National Monument, Idaho. Little is known about its biology, however it is believed to nest in the crevices and holes in the lava flows. [14]

Hawaiian Islands

A single clade of 60 known Hylaeus spp. are native to Hawaii. [15]

Phylogenetic evidence suggests that the first Hylaeus species arrived on the island of Hawaii between 0.5 and 0.4 million years ago. From here, it is believed that descendants of the initial (presumed ground-nesting) colonist separated in order to specialize in the different ecological niches available. This included coastal and dry forest strands ( H. longiceps and H. anthracinus ); mid-elevation and montane dry shrubland strands (H. difficilis); cleptoparasite strands (H. inquilina); and wet and mesic forest wood-nesters. After this divergence, it is believed dispersal to other Hawaiian Islands occurred. [15]

It is likely that the rapid speciation of Hylaeus occurred due to open expansion into open niches in novel habitat. Using an equation (r=lnN/t) developed by other studies into the evolution of Hawaiian groups, [16] it can be calculated that the minimum speciation rate for Hylaeus on the island of Hawaii is 9.23 species per million years. [15]

Hylaeus leptocephalus Hylaeus leptocephalus, m, side, Dorchester Co, MD 2016-02-18-16.57 (24539821574).jpg
Hylaeus leptocephalus

In terms of nesting biology, those that inhabit wet areas nest in stems or wood, while those inhabiting dry areas nest in the ground. Some ground-nesting species are also known to nest in crevices under rocks or within rock walls. Cleptoparasitic species appear to only attack ground or crevice nesters. Hylaeus species lack features required for digging or excavation; instead, it is likely that the holes they inhabit were initiated by other insects (such as Plagithmysus beetles or Ectemnius wasps). [17]

Hawaiian Hylaeus species include five known cleptoparasitic species. These are the only known cleptoparasitic colletids. [17]

Canada

There are 20 recorded species of Hylaeus in Canada, and an estimated 30 different species based on DNA barcoding. There are multiple reasons that extra species may not currently be recorded: colour markings and variations have been traditional identifiers leading to multiple junior synonyms, this genus is easily established outside of its native range, and heteroplasmy is known in some Hylaeus species which can lead to difficulties with specimen identification. [18]

Australasia

New Zealand

8 species of Hylaeus are known in New Zealand. All of these species belong to the subgenus Prosopisteron. 6 of these species are endemic. [19]

Endemic species of Hylaeus are divided into two groups based on a distinctive feature: the form of the apex of the 8th metasomal sternum of males. Hylaeus agilis and H. capitosus have a rounded apex, while H. kermadecensis, H. matamoko, H. murihiku and H. relegatus have a bifid (deeply notched) apex. [19] Two species are adventive from Australia: Hylaeus asperithorax and H. perhumilis. [19]

H. agilis has been recorded nesting in a wide variety of pre-made holes in stems and wood, for example in Muhlenbeckia australis and Ripogonum scandens, as well as introduced blackberry. Widespread throughout the three main islands, females are known to be aggressive pollen and/or nectar seekers, and have been observed on yellow mistletoe ( Alepis flavida ) and red mistletoe ( Peraxilla tetrapetala ). [19]

H. asperithorax is found on the three main islands of New Zealand, as well as the Three Kings Islands and the Chicken Islands, Somes Island, and the Chatham Islands. Host plants are a mix of native plants (for example, Wahlenbergia pygmaea and Veronica speciosa ) and introduced plants such as the common dandelion. [19]

H. kermadecensis is restricted to the Kermadec Islands. H. kermadecensis has two known host plants: the native Scaevola gracilis and the introduced flossflower ( Ageratum houstonianum ). This species is also known to nest in previously excavated holes in wood and stems, and has been found using anobiid tunnels. It has been observing nesting in the trunk of Myrsine kermadecensis . [19]

H. matamoko is a South Island species, found in mid- to southern montane areas. Host plants associated with these species include native Hebe spp., Epilobium spp. and Myosotis spp. [19]

H. murihiku is also a South Island species, with specimens being collected from Fiordland. Little is currently known about biological behaviour and habits of the species. [19]

H. perhumilis inhabits both the North and South Island. This species once again occupies pre-made holes to nest, and have been collected from both borer holes as well as those found in structures such as buildings and benches. Their host plants are known to be introduced Banksia spp and Eucalyptus regnans . [19]

A male round-headed masked bee (Hylaeus rotundiceps) observed in Seymour, Australia. Round-headed Masked Bee.jpg
A male round-headed masked bee (Hylaeus rotundiceps) observed in Seymour, Australia.

H. relegatus is widespread throughout the 3 main islands of New Zealand, and also the Chatham Islands and Three Kings Islands. They are known to utilise a wide range of both native and introduced plants across their range. They also utilise pre-excavated holes in wood and stems to nest, including those found in weatherboards and planking. Nests have been known to be parasitized by Gasteruption spp and Coelopencyrtus australis . Prepupae have also been recorded being attacked by Melittobia spp, and immature bees have been recorded as being killed by mould mites ( Tyrophagus putrescentiae ). [19]

Australia

There are 173 species of Hylaeus found in Australia. [3] 14 out of 16 sugenera of Hylaeus found in Australia are endemic. [20]

Phylogenetic data currently suggests that Hylaeus originates from Australia, arising around 30 million years ago. One dispersal event would have led to the species found in New Zealand, and another separate dispersal event leading to the worldwide distribution of species found outside Australasia, with both these events having occurred between 22 and 23 million years ago. [3]

Subgenera found in Australia

The Australian Faunal Directory lists 20 subgenera as being found in Australia: [21]

Asia

China

21 species have been formally identified and described in China. These are as follows: Hylaeus (Dentigera) luna , Hylaeus asiaticus , Hylaeus difformis , Hylaeus dolichocephalus , Hylaeus dorni , Hylaeus fuliginosus , Hylaeus mongolicus , Hylaeus niger , Hylaeus paulus , Hylaeus perforatus , Hylaeus potanini , Hylaeus przewalskyi , Hylaeus sibiricus , Hylaeus sinensis , Hylaeus medialis , Hylaeus pfankuchi , Hylaeus floralis , Hylaeus concinnus , Hylaeus nigricallosus , Hylaeus confusus and Hylaeus variegatus . [22]

Japan

23 species of Hylaeus are formally identified in Japan. [6]

Saudi Arabia

Only one species of Hylaeus has been formally recorded in Saudi Arabia - Hylaeus (Paraprosopis) albonotatus. Further surveying of bee fauna is likely to result in further groups being recorded, due to the close proximity of numerous other species and subgenera of Hylaeus. [23]

Ecology

Nesting Biology

Hylaeus nests in premade holes and prefers to nest in wood, but will nest in dead stems, rocks, and earthworm burrows.

When a suitable premade hole is found, it is then divided by transverse partitions of clear cellophane-like material. The inner most cell is the one farthest from the nest entrance, and is characterised by a round distal end in order to fit the hole. Cell volumes are more or less constant. Lateral burrows are not constructed in this genus, but cells are placed end to end in the main nest. [24]

Hylaeus lines their nest with a waterproof and contaminant proof clear cellophane substance that does not melt or dissolve with strong chemicals. They also secrete a substance that protects the nest from fungi and bacteria. This substance is secreted from the mandibles. [25]

A female Little Masked Bee (Hylaeus pictipes) observed foraging on lovage in Ohio. Little Masked Bee.jpg
A female Little Masked Bee (Hylaeus pictipes) observed foraging on lovage in Ohio.

Food mass placed in cells is liquid, even watery in some cases. It fills the bottom part of the water-proof cells. This liquid state is due a relatively small amount of pollen deposited in it from the crop. [24] This pollen is then placed in a nectar admixture. [4]

Diet and Feeding

Females gather large amounts of nectar for their semi-liquid provisions, and males feed on nectar. Observations suggest that Hylaeus are specialized in terms of pollen they collect, and near exclusively line their cells with pollen from plants they are specially adapted to. [26] Pollen is carried internally in the crop. [27]

Pollen-grooming movements by this genus to get pollen to the mouth only take pollen from the head and forelegs, with pollen on other parts of the body being lost. It is thought that the internal method of carrying pollen via the crop is an ancestral trait compared to scopal transport that other bees perform. [4]

Pollination

The genus does not possess the same external structures as most other bee species and therefore instead transports pollen and nectar in the crop whilst foraging instead of externally. [28] This makes for an interesting question of whether the species is an effective pollinator as the relative importance of their role as pollinators is unknown. [29]

Hylaeus are considered generalist species, foraging on multiple species but have been documented to frequently visit specific plants within their established area. [30] They forage at a high rate of visitation on many plant species [31] and are considered to be an important contributor to pollination.

As this species lacks the external features to collect pollen, they pollinate other flowers when they insert their heads into deep throated flowers to harvest pollen and nectar. This results in excess pollen gathering around their head and thorax on their plumose hairs in which they transport to other flowers. [32] These physical attributes raise concerns regarding their effectiveness as pollinators as they are unable to carry the same amount of pollen as other bee species [33] and have been observed not coming into contact with the stigmas to effectively pollinate flowers, thus resulting in pollen theft. [34] Additionally, the Hylaeus forage within short distances of their burrows ultimately resulting in pollen limitations within their environment. [33] To alleviate this issue and increase their foraging efficiency, they specialise with particular species of plants for short periods of time [35] [36] [37] [38] however, when comparing their pollination effectiveness to other pollinator species like the ant, the Hylaeus is not as effective. [34]

Contrastingly, a study involving pollination rates within the species Hylaeus matamoko in alpine areas of New Zealand, depicted a significant increase in pollination rate per visit when comparing to other invertebrate pollinators. It is estimated that the species performs 90-95% of the pollination within the alpine area studied [32] with the Hylaeus also making up approximately 90% of foraging activities within their local environment. [39]

Multiple literary sources indicate that further studies regarding their pollination effectiveness should be performed for each individual species and their respective global locations to determine if pollination rates change within species and to investigate the effectiveness of the genus as a pollinator.

Conservation

Nearly half of the Hylaeus species found in Hawaii are under threat, primarily due to loss and alteration of habitats. An estimated 10 species of Hylaeus may already be extinct in the Hawaiian Islands. [17]

Hylaeus hirsutulus from Kaua‘i; H. angustulus from Maui Nui; H. kukui from Maui and Hawai‘i; H. crabronoides, H. filicum, H. muranus (= insignis), and H. rugulosus from Hawai‘i; and H. specularis from Hawai‘i, Moloka‘i, O‘ahu, and Kaua‘i (and presumedly Maui) all have only been collected and recorded in low numbers. These populations may potentially be under threat, however also exist in relatively large areas, and so may exist in larger populations than currently known. These species require further investigation to conclusively determine their status. [17]

In the past 30 years, only three specimens of Hylaeus facilis have been collected from the Hawaiian Islands - one from O‘ahu in 1975, one from Maui in 1993, and one from Moloka‘i in 2005. Previous to 1930, this species had been described as widespread and abundant. It remains uncertain why these populations have decreased significantly while substantial habitat remains and closely related species remain abundant. [17]

Hawaiian species H. anthracinus is known to be affected by the presence of invasive ant species, decreasing both nest success and the number of adults produced per successful nest. The black household ant ( Ochetellus glaber ) has been observed depredating nests, removing pollen, eggs, larvae and pupae. The African big-headed ant ( Pheidole megacephala ) can co-exist with H. anthracinus at low densities, however excludes them from ground-nesting opportunities when populations rise. In contrast, the yellow crazy ant ( Anoplolepis gracilipes ) is known to expand rapidly and remove this species from its range. [40]

In Australia, the presence of commercial honey bees has been found to reduce the fecundity of the endemic Hylaeus alcyoneus , with 23% less nests being made when honey bees were present. [41]

Selected species

male H. nigritus Hylaeus.signatus.male.3.jpg
male H. nigritus

Species of Hylaeus include:

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carpenter bee</span> Common name for a genus of bees

Carpenter bees are species in the genus Xylocopa of the subfamily Xylocopinae. The genus includes some 500 bees in 31 subgenera. The common name "carpenter bee" derives from their nesting behavior; nearly all species burrow into hard plant material such as dead wood or bamboo. The main exceptions are species in the subgenus Proxylocopa, which dig nesting tunnels in suitable soil.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cuckoo bee</span> Kleptoparasitic bee lineages

The term cuckoo bee is used for a variety of different bee lineages which have evolved the kleptoparasitic behaviour of laying their eggs in the nests of other bees, reminiscent of the behavior of cuckoo birds. The name is perhaps best applied to the apid subfamily Nomadinae, but is commonly used in Europe to mean bumblebees Bombus subgenus Psithyrus. Females of cuckoo bees are easy to recognize in almost all cases, as they lack pollen-collecting structures and do not construct their own nests. They often have reduced body hair, abnormally thick and/or heavily sculptured exoskeleton, and saber-like mandibles, although this is not universally true; other less visible changes are also common.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Colletidae</span> Family of bees

The Colletidae are a family of bees, and are often referred to collectively as plasterer bees or polyester bees, due to the method of smoothing the walls of their nest cells with secretions applied with their mouthparts; these secretions dry into a cellophane-like lining. The five subfamilies, 54 genera, and over 2000 species are all evidently solitary, though many nest in aggregations. Two of the subfamilies, Euryglossinae and Hylaeinae, lack the external pollen-carrying apparatus that otherwise characterizes most bees, and instead carry the pollen in their crops. These groups, and most genera in this family, have liquid or semiliquid pollen masses on which the larvae develop.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stenotritidae</span> Family of bees

The Stenotritidae is the smallest of all formally recognised bee families, with only 21 species in two genera, all of them restricted to Australia. Historically, they were generally considered to belong in the family Colletidae, but the stenotritids are presently considered their sister taxon, and deserving of family status. Of prime importance is that the stenotritids have unmodified mouthparts, whereas colletids are separated from all other bees by having bilobed glossae.

<i>Agapostemon</i> Genus of bees

The genus Agapostemon is a common group of Western Hemisphere sweat bees.

<i>Hylaeus alcyoneus</i> Species of bee

Hylaeus alcyoneus, commonly known as the banksia bee, is a bee species endemic to Australia where it is commonly found in the coastal heaths of eastern and southern Western Australia. This bee is an important pollinator of Banksia species.

<i>Leioproctus</i> Genus of bees

Leioproctus is a genus in the plaster bee family Colletidae. Its members are primarily found in Australasia and temperate South America, and include the most common native bees in New Zealand.

<i>Xylocopa sonorina</i> Species of bee

Xylocopa sonorina, the valley carpenter bee or Hawaiian carpenter bee, is a species of carpenter bee found from western Texas to northern California, and the eastern Pacific islands. Females are black while males are golden-brown with green eyes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pyrobombus</span> Subgenus of insects

Pyrobombus is a subgenus of bumblebees, with its centres of diversity in Central Asia and north-western North America. Nearly a fifth of all Bombus species fall within Pyrobombus and its member species vary considerably in size, appearance and behaviour. it covers 43 species of bees and is the largest subgenus of bumblebees, covering almost 50% of the North American fauna. They are seen to be declined by 6%, which may be an undervalued statistic, although not as high as other groups of bees. Pyrobombus bees also face issues such as climate change, loss of habitat, urbanization, and industrial agriculture. This subgenus of bees can pollinate which helps plants fertilise and grow fruit that is essential to the biodiversity and life of the environment. Commonly, Pyrobombus bees are used for beekeeping as they are pollinators. They can be for wax, honey, venom, combs, and such which may be collected for commercial use. This subgenus may vary in their characteristics such as body size, wingspan, and tongue length for individual species, but like all bees, they possess wings, a head, thorax, and abdomen.

<i>Sphecodopsis</i> Genus of bees

Sphecodopsis is a genus of cleptoparasitic cuckoo bees in the family Apidae. Endemic to southern Africa, the wasp-like bees of this genus are generally small, varying from 3.9 to 9 mm in length, and mostly black, with orange-ish or reddish colouring of the metasoma in some of the species. The bee genus Scrapter is recognised as a host for the cleptoparasitic life cycle of some Sphecodopsis, but further data regarding preferred hosts is not available for most of the species.

Hylaeus longiceps, also known as the longhead yellow-faced bee, is a species of bee endemic to Hawaii and known from only six populations. In September 2016, along with six other Hawaiian yellow-faced bee species, H. longiceps was listed for protection under the United States Endangered Species Act. This marked a first listing for any bees species in the US.

<i>Hylaeus sanguinipictus</i> Species of bee

Hylaeus sanguinipictus is a bee species endemic to Western Australia. It was described in 1914 from material collected in Yallingup by Theodore Dru Alison Cockerell as Prosopis sanguinipicta.

Megachile angelarum is a species of bee in the Megachilidae family.

<i>Calliopsis</i> (bee) Genus of bees

Calliopsis is a genus of panurgine bees in the family Andrenidae. There are over 80 described species distributed throughout the western hemisphere.

<i>Hylaeus agilis</i> Species of bee

Hylaeus agilis is a bee species in the family Colletidae. It is endemic to New Zealand. This species is found throughout the country and visits the flowers of a wide variety of plant species, both native and introduced.

<i>Augochlorella</i> Genus of bees

Augochlorella is a genus in the bee family Halictidae, commonly called sweat bees. They display metallic coloration, ranging from reddish to gold to bluish green, as is typical for other genera in the tribe Augochlorini.

<i>Colletes validus</i> Species of bee

Colletes validus, colloquially known as the blueberry cellophane bee, is a solitary, specialist bee in the family Colletidae. It is found primarily in eastern North America where it nests in sandy soils near ericaceous plants.

<i>Andrena prunorum</i> Species of bee

Andrena prunorum, otherwise known as the purple miner bee, is a species of solitary bees in the family Andrenidae. It is commonly found in the continental United States as well as much of North and Central America. Andrena prunorum is a spring-flying, ground-nesting bee that serves as a ubiquitous generalist in ecological settings. Both males and females live as prepupae in the winter in which they mate, and the females seek new sites for ground burrows. From there, they construct small cells surrounding a ball of pollen combined with nectar to nourish a laid egg before each cell is sealed, and the cycle begins anew. A. prunorum generally prefer the pollen derived from Rosaceae plants but will pollinate fruit trees if given the opportunity.

<i>Hylaeus relegatus</i> Species of bee, endemic to New Zealand

Hylaeus relegatus is a bee species in the family Colletidae. It is endemic to New Zealand and was first described by Frederick Smith. It is the largest and most common species of this genus in that country. H. relegatus can be found throughout the three main islands of New Zealand and visits the flowers of a wide variety of plant species, both native and introduced. Although widespread, this species is not abundant at any one particular location. It has been hypothesised that human made nest sites can be used to increase its numbers.

<i>Hylaeus euxanthus</i> Species of bee

Hylaeus euxanthus is a species of hymenopteran in the family Colletidae and the subgenus Gnathoprosopis. It is found in Australia.

References

  1. ↑ Tan, Elaine (2020-04-01). "Bee Dichotomous Key". UC Santa Barbara: Cheadle Center for Biodiversity and Ecological Restoration.
  2. ↑ "Petition to List Two Species of Hawaiian Yellow-Faced Bees (Hylaeus Mana and Hylaeus Kuakea) as Endangered Species Under the U.S. Endangered Species Act" (PDF). The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation. 2009. Retrieved 2022-04-04.
  3. 1 2 3 Kayaalp, Pelin; Schwarz, Michael P.; Stevens, Mark I. (2013). "Rapid diversification in Australia and two dispersals out of Australia in the globally distributed bee genus, Hylaeus (Colletidae: Hylaeinae)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 66 (3): 668–678. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2012.10.018. ISSN   1055-7903. PMID   23138101.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Michener, C.D. (2007). The Bees of the World (2nd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 132. ISBN   978-0801885730.
  5. ↑ Blum, Murray S.; Bohart, G. E. (1972-01-17). "Neral and Geranial: Identification in a Colletid Bee1". Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 65 (1): 274–275. doi:10.1093/aesa/65.1.274. ISSN   1938-2901.
  6. 1 2 Ikudome, S (1989). "A revision of the family Colletidae of Japan (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)". Bull. Inst Minami–Kyushu Reg. Sci. 5: 43–314.
  7. 1 2 "Hawaii's Native Bees - Nalo Meli Maoli" (PDF). Ctahr.hawaii.edu. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
  8. ↑ "For the First Time, Bees Declared Endangered in the U.S." 1 October 2016. Archived from the original on October 1, 2016. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
  9. ↑ "The Xerces Society » Yellow faced bees: Hylaeus finitimus". Xerces.org. Archived from the original on 30 July 2018. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
  10. ↑ "Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Endangered Status for 49 Species From the Hawaiian Islands". Federalregister.gov. 30 September 2016. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
  11. ↑ "The Xerces Society". Xerces.org. Archived from the original on 12 February 2017. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
  12. ↑ "Yellow-Faced Bee - Hylaeus". www.fs.fed.us. Retrieved 2021-10-18.
  13. ↑ Droege, Sam (2021). "Introduced and Alien Bee Species of North America (North of Mexico)". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
  14. ↑ "Yellow faced bees | Xerces Society". xerces.org. Retrieved 2021-10-18.
  15. 1 2 3 Magnacca, Karl N.; Danforth, Bryan N. (2006). "Evolution and biogeography of native Hawaiian Hylaeus bees (Hymenoptera: Colletidae)". Cladistics. 22 (5): 393–411. doi: 10.1111/j.1096-0031.2006.00119.x . ISSN   1096-0031. S2CID   7697556.
  16. ↑ Mendelson, Tamra C.; Shaw, Kerry L. (2005). "Rapid speciation in an arthropod". Nature. 433 (7024): 375–376. doi:10.1038/433375a. ISSN   1476-4687. PMID   15674280. S2CID   4352857.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 Magnacca, Karl N. (2007). "Conservation Status of the Endemic Bees of Hawai'i, Hylaeus (Nesoprosopis) (Hymenoptera: Colletidae)". Pacific Science. 61 (2): 173–190. doi:10.2984/1534-6188(2007)61[173:CSOTEB]2.0.CO;2. hdl: 10125/22606 . ISSN   0030-8870. S2CID   53479040.
  18. ↑ Sheffield, Cory S.; Heron, Jennifer; Gibbs, Jason; Onuferko, Thomas M.; Oram, Ryan; Best, Lincoln; deSilva, Nicholai; Dumesh, Sheila; Pindar, Alana; Rowe, Genevieve (2017). "Contribution of DNA barcoding to the study of the bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea) of Canada: progress to date". The Canadian Entomologist. 149 (6): 736–754. doi: 10.4039/tce.2017.49 . ISSN   0008-347X. S2CID   90608202.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Donovan, Barry J (2007). "Apoidea (Insecta: Hymenoptera)". Fauna of New Zealand. 57. doi:10.7931/J2/FNZ.57.
  20. ↑ Houston, Tf (1975). "A revision of the Australian hylaeine bees (Hymenoptera : Colletidae). I. Introductory material and the genera Heterapoides Sandhouse, Gephyrohylaeus Michener, Huleoides Smith, Pharohylaeus Michener, Hemirhiza Michener, Amphylaeus Michener and Meroglossa Smith". Australian Journal of Zoology Supplementary Series. 23 (36): 1. doi:10.1071/AJZS036. ISSN   0310-9089.
  21. ↑ "Australian Faunal Directory: Hylaeus checklist". biodiversity.org.au. Retrieved 2022-01-08.
  22. ↑ Chen, Xuan; Xu, Huan-li (2009). "A key to species of the genus Hylaeus (Hymenoptera: Colletidae) from mainland of China with descriptions of new species and new records". Zootaxa: 31–50.
  23. ↑ Engel, Michael S.; Alqarni, Abdulaziz S.; Hannan, Mohammed A. (2013). "A preliminary list of bee genera in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)". Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences. 12 (1): 85–89. doi: 10.1016/j.jssas.2012.08.001 .
  24. 1 2 Michener, Charles D. (1964). "Evolution of the Nests of Bees". American Zoologist. 4 (2): 227–239. doi: 10.1093/icb/4.2.227 . ISSN   0003-1569. JSTOR   3881295.
  25. ↑ "INDEX", The Bees in Your Backyard, Princeton University Press, pp. 279–287, 2016-12-31, doi:10.1515/9781400874156-011, ISBN   978-1-4008-7415-6 , retrieved 2021-02-04
  26. ↑ Scott, Virginia (1996). "Pollen Selection by Three Species of Hylaeus in Michigan (Hymenoptera: Colletidae)". Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society. 69 (4): 195–200. ISSN   0022-8567. JSTOR   25085717.
  27. ↑ Patiny, Sébastien, ed. (2011). Evolution of Plant-Pollinator Relationships. Systematics Association Special Volume Series. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9781139014113. ISBN   978-0-521-19892-9.
  28. ↑ Michener, Charles D.; Howell V., Daly; Karl N., Magnacca (2003-07-01). "Hawaiian Hylaeus (Nesoprosopis) Bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)". Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 96 (4): 595–596. doi: 10.1093/aesa/96.4.595a . ISSN   0013-8746.
  29. ↑ BISCHOFF, MASCHA; CAMPBELL, DIANE R.; LORD, JANICE M.; ROBERTSON, ALASTAIR W. (2012-04-27). "The relative importance of solitary bees and syrphid flies as pollinators of two outcrossing plant species in the New Zealand alpine". Austral Ecology. 38 (2): 169–176. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.2012.02389.x. ISSN   1442-9985.
  30. ↑ Krushelnycky, Paul D. (2014-02-14). "Evaluating the Interacting Influences of Pollination, Seed Predation, Invasive Species and Isolation on Reproductive Success in a Threatened Alpine Plant". PLOS ONE. 9 (2): e88948. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...988948K. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0088948 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   3925224 . PMID   24551195.
  31. ↑ Shay, Kimberly; Drake, Donald R.; Taylor, Andrew D.; Sahli, Heather F.; Euaparadorn, Melody; Akamine, Michelle; Imamura, Jennifer; Powless, Doug; Aldrich, Patrick (2016). "Alien Insects Dominate the Plant-Pollinator Network of a Hawaiian Coastal Ecosystem". Pacific Science. 70 (4): 409–429. doi:10.2984/70.4.2. ISSN   0030-8870. S2CID   89236553.
  32. 1 2 New, Tim R. (2011-06-07). "Eric Mader, Matthew Shepherd, Mace Vaughan, Scott Hoffman Black and Gretchen LeBuhn: attracting native pollinators. Protecting North America's bees and butterflies. The Xerces Society Guide". Journal of Insect Conservation. 15 (4): 611–612. doi:10.1007/s10841-011-9409-4. ISSN   1366-638X. S2CID   26272030.
  33. 1 2 Krushelnycky, Paul (2014). "Evaluating the interacting influences of pollination, seed predation, invasive species and isolation on reproductive success in a threatened alpine plant". PLOS ONE. 9 (2): e88948. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...988948K. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0088948 . PMC   3925224 . PMID   24551195.
  34. 1 2 Junker, R; Bleil, R; Daehler, C; BlÜThgen, N (2010). "Intra-floral resource partitioning between endemic and invasive flower visitors: consequences for pollinator effectiveness". Ecological Entomology. 1 (35): 760–767. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2311.2010.01237.x . S2CID   86329368.
  35. ↑ Michener, Charles D. (1979). "Biogeography of the Bees". Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 66 (3): 277–347. doi:10.2307/2398833. ISSN   0026-6493. JSTOR   2398833.
  36. ↑ Heinrich, B (1979). ""Majoring" and "Minoring" by Foraging Bumblebees, Bombus Vagans: An Experimental Analysis". Ecology. 60 (2): 246–255. doi:10.2307/1937652. JSTOR   1937652.
  37. ↑ Eickwort, G. C. (1980). "Foraging and mating behavior in Apoidea". Annual Review of Entomology. 25 (1): 421–446. doi:10.1146/annurev.en.25.010180.002225.
  38. ↑ Seeley, T. D. (1985). "Survival of honeybees in cold climates: the critical timing of colony growth and reproduction". Ecological Entomology. 10 (1): 81–88. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2311.1985.tb00537.x. S2CID   84996510.
  39. ↑ Hopper, D.R. (2002) The reproductive biology and conservation of the endangered Hawaiian legume, Sesbania tomentosa, with emphasis on its pollination system. Ph.D., University of Hawai'i at Manoa
  40. ↑ Plentovich, Sheldon; Graham, Jason R.; Haines, William P.; King, Cynthia B. A. (2021-01-28). "Invasive ants reduce nesting success of an endangered Hawaiian yellow-faced bee, Hylaeus anthracinus". NeoBiota. 64: 137–154. doi: 10.3897/neobiota.64.58670 . ISSN   1314-2488. S2CID   233282685.
  41. ↑ Paini, Dean R.; Roberts, J. Dale (2005). "Commercial honey bees (Apis mellifera) reduce the fecundity of an Australian native bee (Hylaeus alcyoneus)". Biological Conservation. 123 (1): 103–112. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2004.11.001.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.