Blue Gene was an IBM project aimed at designing supercomputers that can reach operating speeds in the petaFLOPS (PFLOPS) range, with low power consumption.
The project created three generations of supercomputers, Blue Gene/L, Blue Gene/P, and Blue Gene/Q. During their deployment, Blue Gene systems often led the TOP500[1] and Green500[2] rankings of the most powerful and most power-efficient supercomputers, respectively. Blue Gene systems have also consistently scored top positions in the Graph500 list.[3] The project was awarded the 2009 National Medal of Technology and Innovation.[4]
After Blue Gene/Q, IBM focused its supercomputer efforts on the OpenPower platform, using accelerators such as FPGAs and GPUs to address the diminishing returns of Moore's law.[5][6]
History
A video presentation of the history and technology of the Blue Gene project was given at the Supercomputing 2020 conference.[7]
In December 1999, IBM announced a US$100 million research initiative for a five-year effort to build a massively parallel computer, to be applied to the study of biomolecular phenomena such as protein folding.[8] The research and development was pursued by a large multi-disciplinary team at the IBM T. J. Watson Research Center, initially led by William R. Pulleyblank.[9] The project had two main goals: to advance understanding of the mechanisms behind protein folding via large-scale simulation, and to explore novel ideas in massively parallel machine architecture and software. Major areas of investigation included: how to use this novel platform to effectively meet its scientific goals, how to make such massively parallel machines more usable, and how to achieve performance targets at a reasonable cost, through novel machine architectures.
The initial design for Blue Gene was based on an early version of the Cyclops64 architecture, designed by Monty Denneau. In parallel, Alan Gara had started working on an extension of the QCDOC architecture into a more general-purpose supercomputer. The US Department of Energy started funding the development of this system and it became known as Blue Gene/L (L for Light). Development of the original Blue Gene architecture continued under the name Blue Gene/C (C for Cyclops) and, later, Cyclops64.
In November 2004 a 16-rack system, with each rack holding 1,024 compute nodes, achieved first place in the TOP500 list, with a LINPACK benchmarks performance of 70.72TFLOPS.[1] It thereby overtook NEC's Earth Simulator, which had held the title of the fastest computer in the world since 2002. From 2004 through 2007 the Blue Gene/L installation at LLNL[10] gradually expanded to 104 racks, achieving 478TFLOPS Linpack and 596TFLOPS peak. The LLNL BlueGene/L installation held the first position in the TOP500 list for 3.5 years, until in June 2008 it was overtaken by IBM's Cell-based Roadrunner system at Los Alamos National Laboratory, which was the first system to surpass the 1 PetaFLOPS mark.
While the LLNL installation was the largest Blue Gene/L installation, many smaller installations followed. The November 2006 TOP500 list showed 27 computers with the eServer Blue Gene Solution architecture. For example, three racks of Blue Gene/L were housed at the San Diego Supercomputer Center.
While the TOP500 measures performance on a single benchmark application, Linpack, Blue Gene/L also set records for performance on a wider set of applications. Blue Gene/L was the first supercomputer ever to run over 100TFLOPS sustained on a real-world application, namely a three-dimensional molecular dynamics code (ddcMD), simulating solidification (nucleation and growth processes) of molten metal under high pressure and temperature conditions. This achievement won the 2005 Gordon Bell Prize.
In June 2006, NNSA and IBM announced that Blue Gene/L achieved 207.3TFLOPS on a quantum chemical application (Qbox).[11] At Supercomputing 2006,[12] Blue Gene/L was awarded the winning prize in all HPC Challenge Classes of awards.[13] In 2007, a team from the IBM Almaden Research Center and the University of Nevada ran an artificial neural network almost half as complex as the brain of a mouse for the equivalent of a second (the network was run at 1/10 of normal speed for 10 seconds).[14]
The name
The name Blue Gene comes from what it was originally designed to do, help biologists understand the processes of protein folding and gene development.[15] "Blue" is a traditional moniker that IBM uses for many of its products and the company itself. The original Blue Gene design was renamed "Blue Gene/C" and eventually Cyclops64. The "L" in Blue Gene/L comes from "Light" as that design's original name was "Blue Light". The "P" version was designed to be a petascale design. "Q" is just the letter after "P".[16]
Major features
The Blue Gene/L supercomputer was unique in the following aspects:[17]
Trading the speed of processors for lower power consumption. Blue Gene/L used low frequency and low power embedded PowerPC cores with floating-point accelerators. While the performance of each chip was relatively low, the system could achieve better power efficiency for applications that could use large numbers of nodes.
Dual processors per node with two working modes: co-processor mode where one processor handles computation and the other handles communication; and virtual-node mode, where both processors are available to run user code, but the processors share both the computation and the communication load.
System-on-a-chip design. Components were embedded on a single chip for each node, with the exception of 512MB external DRAM.
A large number of nodes (scalable in increments of 1024 up to at least 65,536).
Three-dimensional torus interconnect with auxiliary networks for global communications (broadcast and reductions), I/O, and management.
Lightweight OS per node for minimum system overhead (system noise).
Architecture
The Blue Gene/L architecture was an evolution of the QCDSP and QCDOC architectures. Each Blue Gene/L Compute or I/O node was a single ASIC with associated DRAM memory chips. The ASIC integrated two 700MHz PowerPC 440 embedded processors, each with a double-pipeline-double-precision Floating-Point Unit (FPU), a cache sub-system with built-in DRAM controller and the logic to support multiple communication sub-systems. The dual FPUs gave each Blue Gene/L node a theoretical peak performance of 5.6GFLOPS (gigaFLOPS). The two CPUs were not cache coherent with one another.
Compute nodes were packaged two per compute card, with 16 compute cards (thus 32 nodes) plus up to 2 I/O nodes per node board. A cabinet/rack contained 32 node boards.[18] By the integration of all essential sub-systems on a single chip, and the use of low-power logic, each Compute or I/O node dissipated about 17 watts (including DRAMs). The low power per node allowed aggressive packaging of up to 1024 compute nodes, plus additional I/O nodes, in a standard 19-inch rack, within reasonable limits on electrical power supply and air cooling. The system performance metrics, in terms of FLOPS per watt, FLOPS per m2 of floorspace and FLOPS per unit cost, allowed scaling up to very high performance. With so many nodes, component failures were inevitable. The system was able to electrically isolate faulty components, down to a granularity of half a rack (512 compute nodes), to allow the machine to continue to run.
Each Blue Gene/L node was attached to three parallel communications networks: a 3Dtoroidal network for peer-to-peer communication between compute nodes, a collective network for collective communication (broadcasts and reduce operations), and a global interrupt network for fast barriers. The I/O nodes, which run the Linuxoperating system, provided communication to storage and external hosts via an Ethernet network. The I/O nodes handled filesystem operations on behalf of the compute nodes. A separate and private Ethernet management network provided access to any node for configuration, booting and diagnostics.
To allow multiple programs to run concurrently, a Blue Gene/L system could be partitioned into electronically isolated sets of nodes. The number of nodes in a partition had to be a positive integer power of 2, with at least 25 = 32 nodes. To run a program on Blue Gene/L, a partition of the computer was first to be reserved. The program was then loaded and run on all the nodes within the partition, and no other program could access nodes within the partition while it was in use. Upon completion, the partition nodes were released for future programs to use.
Blue Gene/L compute nodes used a minimal operating system supporting a single user program. Only a subset of POSIX calls was supported, and only one process could run at a time on a node in co-processor mode—or one process per CPU in virtual mode. Programmers needed to implement green threads in order to simulate local concurrency. Application development was usually performed in C, C++, or Fortran using MPI for communication. However, some scripting languages such as Ruby[19] and Python[20] have been ported to the compute nodes.
IBM published BlueMatter, the application developed to exercise Blue Gene/L, as open source.[21] This serves to document how the torus and collective interfaces were used by applications, and may serve as a base for others to exercise the current generation of supercomputers.
Blue Gene/P
A Blue Gene/P node cardA schematic overview of a Blue Gene/P supercomputer
The design of Blue Gene/P is a technology evolution from Blue Gene/L. Each Blue Gene/P Compute chip contains four PowerPC 450 processor cores, running at 850MHz. The cores are cache coherent and the chip can operate as a 4-way symmetric multiprocessor (SMP). The memory subsystem on the chip consists of small private L2 caches, a central shared 8MB L3 cache, and dual DDR2 memory controllers. The chip also integrates the logic for node-to-node communication, using the same network topologies as Blue Gene/L, but at more than twice the bandwidth. A compute card contains a Blue Gene/P chip with 2 or 4GB DRAM, comprising a "compute node". A single compute node has a peak performance of 13.6GFLOPS. 32 Compute cards are plugged into an air-cooled node board. A rack contains 32 node boards (thus 1024 nodes, 4096 processor cores).[23] By using many small, low-power, densely packaged chips, Blue Gene/P exceeded the power efficiency of other supercomputers of its generation, and at 371MFLOPS/W Blue Gene/P installations ranked at or near the top of the Green500 lists in 2007–2008.[2]
Installations
The following is an incomplete list of Blue Gene/P installations. Per November 2009, the TOP500 list contained 15 Blue Gene/P installations of 2-racks (2048 nodes, 8192 processor cores, 23.86TFLOPSLinpack) and larger.[1]
On November 12, 2007, the first Blue Gene/P installation, JUGENE, with 16 racks (16,384 nodes, 65,536 processors) was running at Forschungszentrum Jülich in Germany with a performance of 167TFLOPS.[24] When inaugurated it was the fastest supercomputer in Europe and the sixth fastest in the world. In 2009, JUGENE was upgraded to 72 racks (73,728 nodes, 294,912 processor cores) with 144 terabytes of memory and 6 petabytes of storage, and achieved a peak performance of 1 PetaFLOPS. This configuration incorporated new air-to-water heat exchangers between the racks, reducing the cooling cost substantially.[25] JUGENE was shut down in July 2012 and replaced by the Blue Gene/Q system JUQUEEN.
The 40-rack (40960 nodes, 163840 processor cores) "Intrepid" system at Argonne National Laboratory was ranked #3 on the June 2008 Top 500 list.[26] The Intrepid system is one of the major resources of the INCITE program, in which processor hours are awarded to "grand challenge" science and engineering projects in a peer-reviewed competition.
A 2.5 rack Blue Gene/P system is the central processor for the Low Frequency Array for Radio astronomy (LOFAR) project in the Netherlands and surrounding European countries. This application uses the streaming data capabilities of the machine.
In 2011, a 2-rack Blue Gene/P was installed at University of Canterbury in Christchurch, New Zealand.
In 2012, a 2-rack Blue Gene/P was installed at Rutgers University in Piscataway, New Jersey. It was dubbed "Excalibur" as an homage to the Rutgers mascot, the Scarlet Knight.[30]
The first Blue Gene/P in the ASEAN region was installed in 2010 at the Universiti of Brunei Darussalam’s research centre, the UBD-IBM Centre. The installation has prompted research collaboration between the university and IBM research on climate modeling that will investigate the impact of climate change on flood forecasting, crop yields, renewable energy and the health of rainforests in the region among others.[32]
In 2013, a 1-rack Blue Gene/P was donated to the Department of Science and Technology for weather forecasts, disaster management, precision agriculture, and health it is housed in the National Computer Center, Diliman, Quezon City, under the auspices of Philippine Genome Center (PGC) Core Facility for Bioinformatics (CFB) at UP Diliman, Quezon City.[33]
Applications
Veselin Topalov, the challenger to the World Chess Champion title in 2010, confirmed in an interview that he had used a Blue Gene/P supercomputer during his preparation for the match.[34]
The Blue Gene/P computer has been used to simulate approximately one percent of a human cerebral cortex, containing 1.6 billion neurons with approximately 9 trillion connections.[35]
The IBM Kittyhawk project team has ported Linux to the compute nodes and demonstrated generic Web 2.0 workloads running at scale on a Blue Gene/P. Their paper, published in the ACM Operating Systems Review, describes a kernel driver that tunnels Ethernet over the tree network, which results in all-to-all TCP/IP connectivity.[36][37] Running standard Linux software like MySQL, their performance results on SpecJBB rank among the highest on record.[citation needed]
In 2011, a Rutgers University / IBM / University of Texas team linked the KAUSTShaheen installation together with a Blue Gene/P installation at the IBM Watson Research Center into a "federated high performance computing cloud", winning the IEEE SCALE 2011 challenge with an oil reservoir optimization application.[38]
The third design in the Blue Gene series, Blue Gene/Q, significantly expanded and enhanced on the Blue Gene/L and /P architectures.
Design
The Blue Gene/Q "compute chip" is based on the 64-bitIBM A2 processor core. The A2 processor core is 4-way simultaneously multithreaded and was augmented with a SIMD quad-vector double-precisionfloating-point unit (IBM QPX). Each Blue Gene/Q compute chip contains 18 such A2 processor cores, running at 1.6GHz. 16 Cores are used for application computing and a 17th core is used for handling operating system assist functions such as interrupts, asynchronous I/O, MPI pacing, and RAS. The 18th core is a redundant manufacturing spare, used to increase yield. The spared-out core is disabled prior to system operation. The chip's processor cores are linked by a crossbar switch to a 32MB eDRAM L2 cache, operating at half core speed. The L2 cache is multi-versioned—supporting transactional memory and speculative execution—and has hardware support for atomic operations.[39] L2 cache misses are handled by two built-in DDR3 memory controllers running at 1.33GHz. The chip also integrates logic for chip-to-chip communications in a 5D torus configuration, with 2GB/s chip-to-chip links. The Blue Gene/Q chip is manufactured on IBM's copper SOI process at 45nm. It delivers a peak performance of 204.8GFLOPS while drawing approximately 55 watts. The chip measures 19×19mm (359.5mm²) and comprises 1.47billion transistors. Completing the compute node, the chip is mounted on a compute card along with 16GB DDR3DRAM (i.e., 1GB for each user processor core).[40]
A Q32[41] "compute drawer" contains 32 compute nodes, each water cooled.[42] A "midplane" (crate) contains 16 Q32 compute drawers for a total of 512 compute nodes, electrically interconnected in a 5D torus configuration (4x4x4x4x2). Beyond the midplane level, all connections are optical. Racks have two midplanes, thus 32 compute drawers, for a total of 1024 compute nodes, 16,384 user cores, and 16 TB RAM.[42]
Separate I/O drawers, placed at the top of a rack or in a separate rack, are air cooled and contain 8 compute cards and 8 PCIe expansion slots for InfiniBand or 10 Gigabit Ethernet networking.[42]
Performance
At the time of the Blue Gene/Q system announcement in November 2011,[43] an initial 4-rack Blue Gene/Q system (4096 nodes, 65536 user processor cores) achieved #17 in the TOP500 list[1] with 677.1 TeraFLOPS Linpack, outperforming the original 2007 104-rack BlueGene/L installation described above. The same 4-rack system achieved the top position in the Graph500 list[3] with over 250 GTEPS (giga traversed edges per second). Blue Gene/Q systems also topped the Green500 list of most energy efficient supercomputers with up to 2.1GFLOPS/W.[2]
The following is an incomplete list of Blue Gene/Q installations. Per June 2012, the TOP500 list contained 20 Blue Gene/Q installations of 1/2-rack (512 nodes, 8192 processor cores, 86.35TFLOPS Linpack) and larger.[1] At a (size-independent) power efficiency of about 2.1 GFLOPS/W, all these systems also populated the top of the June 2012 Green 500 list.[2]
A Blue Gene/Q system called Sequoia was delivered to the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) beginning in 2011 and was fully deployed in June 2012. It is part of the Advanced Simulation and Computing Program running nuclear simulations and advanced scientific research. It consists of 96 racks (comprising 98,304 compute nodes with 1.6 million processor cores and 1.6PB of memory) covering an area of about 3,000 square feet (280m2).[44] In June 2012, the system was ranked as the world's fastest supercomputer.[45][46] at 20.1PFLOPS peak, 16.32PFLOPS sustained (Linpack), drawing up to 7.9 megawatts of power.[1] In June 2013, its performance is listed at 17.17PFLOPS sustained (Linpack).[1]
JUQUEEN at the Forschungzentrum Jülich is a 28-rack Blue Gene/Q system, and was from June 2013 to November 2015 the highest ranked machine in Europe in the Top500.[1]
Vulcan at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) is a 24-rack, 5PFLOPS (peak), Blue Gene/Q system that was commissioned in 2012 and decommissioned in 2019.[49] Vulcan served Lab-industry projects through Livermore's High Performance Computing (HPC) Innovation Center[50] as well as academic collaborations in support of DOE/National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) missions.[51]
Fermi at the CINECA Supercomputing facility, Bologna, Italy,[52] is a 10-rack, 2PFLOPS (peak), Blue Gene/Q system.
A five rack Blue Gene/Q system with additional compute hardware called AMOS was installed at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 2013.[54] The system was rated at 1048.6 teraflops, the most powerful supercomputer at any private university, and third most powerful supercomputer among all universities in 2014.[55]
An 838 TFLOPS (peak) Blue Gene/Q system called Avoca was installed at the Victorian Life Sciences Computation Initiative in June, 2012.[56] This system is part of a collaboration between IBM and VLSCI, with the aims of improving diagnostics, finding new drug targets, refining treatments and furthering our understanding of diseases.[57] The system consists of 4 racks, with 350TB of storage, 65,536 cores, 64TB RAM.[58]
A 209 TFLOPS peak (172TFLOPS LINPACK) Blue Gene/Q system called Lemanicus was installed at the EPFL in March 2013.[61] This system belongs to the Center for Advanced Modeling Science CADMOS ([62]) which is a collaboration between the three main research institutions on the shore of the Lake Geneva in the French speaking part of Switzerland: University of Lausanne, University of Geneva and EPFL. The system consists of a single rack (1,024 compute nodes) with 2.1PB of IBM GPFS-GSS storage.
A half-rack Blue Gene/Q system, with about 100TFLOPS (peak), called Cumulus was installed at A*STAR Computational Resource Centre, Singapore, at early 2011.[63]
Applications
Record-breaking science applications have been run on the BG/Q, the first to cross 10 petaflops of sustained performance. The cosmology simulation framework HACC achieved almost 14 petaflops with a 3.6 trillion particle benchmark run,[64] while the Cardioid code,[65][66] which models the electrophysiology of the human heart, achieved nearly 12 petaflops with a near real-time simulation, both on Sequoia. A fully compressible flow solver has also achieved 14.4PFLOP/s (originally 11PFLOP/s) on Sequoia, 72% of the machine's nominal peak performance.[67]
A supercomputer is a type of computer with a high level of performance as compared to a general-purpose computer. The performance of a supercomputer is commonly measured in floating-point operations per second (FLOPS) instead of million instructions per second (MIPS). Since 2017, supercomputers have existed which can perform over 1017 FLOPS (a hundred quadrillion FLOPS, 100 petaFLOPS or 100 PFLOPS). For comparison, a desktop computer has performance in the range of hundreds of gigaFLOPS (1011) to tens of teraFLOPS (1013). Since November 2017, all of the world's fastest 500 supercomputers run on Linux-based operating systems. Additional research is being conducted in the United States, the European Union, Taiwan, Japan, and China to build faster, more powerful and technologically superior exascale supercomputers.
Floating point operations per second is a measure of computer performance in computing, useful in fields of scientific computations that require floating-point calculations.
The Earth Simulator (ES) is a series of supercomputers deployed at Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology Yokohama Institute of Earth Sciences.
MareNostrum is the main supercomputer in the Barcelona Supercomputing Center. It is the most powerful supercomputer in Spain, one of thirteen supercomputers in the Spanish Supercomputing Network and one of the seven supercomputers of the European infrastructure PRACE.
Scalable POWERparallel (SP) is a series of supercomputers from IBM. SP systems were part of the IBM RISC System/6000 (RS/6000) family, and were also called the RS/6000 SP. The first model, the SP1, was introduced in February 1993, and new models were introduced throughout the 1990s until the RS/6000 was succeeded by eServer pSeries in October 2000. The SP is a distributed memory system, consisting of multiple RS/6000-based nodes interconnected by an IBM-proprietary switch called the High Performance Switch (HPS). The nodes are clustered using software called PSSP, which is mainly written in Perl.
Roadrunner was a supercomputer built by IBM for the Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico, USA. The US$100-million Roadrunner was designed for a peak performance of 1.7 petaflops. It achieved 1.026 petaflops on May 25, 2008, to become the world's first TOP500 LINPACK sustained 1.0 petaflops system.
MDGRAPE-3 is an ultra-high performance petascale supercomputer system developed by the Riken research institute in Japan. It is a special purpose system built for molecular dynamics simulations, especially protein structure prediction.
The TOP500 project ranks and details the 500 most powerful non-distributed computer systems in the world. The project was started in 1993 and publishes an updated list of the supercomputers twice a year. The first of these updates always coincides with the International Supercomputing Conference in June, and the second is presented at the ACM/IEEE Supercomputing Conference in November. The project aims to provide a reliable basis for tracking and detecting trends in high-performance computing and bases rankings on HPL benchmarks, a portable implementation of the high-performance LINPACK benchmark written in Fortran for distributed-memory computers.
JUGENE was a supercomputer built by IBM for Forschungszentrum Jülich in Germany. It was based on the Blue Gene/P and succeeded the JUBL based on an earlier design. It was at the introduction the second fastest computer in the world, and the month before its decommissioning in July 2012 it was still at the 25th position in the TOP500 list. The computer was owned by the "Jülich Supercomputing Centre" (JSC) and the Gauss Centre for Supercomputing.
Pleiades is a petascale supercomputer housed at the NASA Advanced Supercomputing (NAS) facility at NASA's Ames Research Center located at Moffett Field near Mountain View, California. It is maintained by NASA and partners Hewlett Packard Enterprise and Intel.
IBM Sequoia was a petascale Blue Gene/Q supercomputer constructed by IBM for the National Nuclear Security Administration as part of the Advanced Simulation and Computing Program (ASC). It was delivered to the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) in 2011 and was fully deployed in June 2012. Sequoia was dismantled in 2020, its last position on the top500.org list was #22 in the November 2019 list.
PERCS is IBM's answer to DARPA's High Productivity Computing Systems (HPCS) initiative. The program resulted in commercial development and deployment of the Power 775, a supercomputer design with extremely high performance ratios in fabric and memory bandwidth, as well as very high performance density and power efficiency.
QPACE is a massively parallel and scalable supercomputer designed for applications in lattice quantum chromodynamics.
The K computer – named for the Japanese word/numeral "kei" (京), meaning 10 quadrillion (1016) – was a supercomputer manufactured by Fujitsu, installed at the Riken Advanced Institute for Computational Science campus in Kobe, Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan. The K computer was based on a distributed memory architecture with over 80,000 compute nodes. It was used for a variety of applications, including climate research, disaster prevention and medical research. The K computer's operating system was based on the Linux kernel, with additional drivers designed to make use of the computer's hardware.
Japan operates a number of centers for supercomputing which hold world records in speed, with the K computer being the world's fastest from June 2011 to June 2012, and Fugaku holding the lead from June 2020 until June 2022.
Several centers for supercomputing exist across Europe, and distributed access to them is coordinated by European initiatives to facilitate high-performance computing. One such initiative, the HPC Europa project, fits within the Distributed European Infrastructure for Supercomputing Applications (DEISA), which was formed in 2002 as a consortium of eleven supercomputing centers from seven European countries. Operating within the CORDIS framework, HPC Europa aims to provide access to supercomputers across Europe.
Approaches to supercomputer architecture have taken dramatic turns since the earliest systems were introduced in the 1960s. Early supercomputer architectures pioneered by Seymour Cray relied on compact innovative designs and local parallelism to achieve superior computational peak performance. However, in time the demand for increased computational power ushered in the age of massively parallel systems.
The PRIMEHPC FX10 is a supercomputer designed and manufactured by Fujitsu. Announced on 7 November 2011 at the Supercomputing Conference, the PRIMEHPC FX10 is an improved and commercialized version of the K computer, which was the first supercomputer to obtain more than 10 PFLOPS on the LINPACK benchmark. In its largest configuration, the PRIMEHPC FX10 has a peak performance 23.2 PFLOPS, power consumption of 22.4 MW, and a list price of US$655.4 million. It was succeeded by the PRIMEHPC FX100 with SPARC64 XIfx processors in 2015.
Fermi is a 2.097 petaFLOPS supercomputer located at CINECA.
The Sunway BlueLight (神威蓝光) is a Chinese massively parallel supercomputer. It is the first publicly announced PFLOPS supercomputer using Sunway processors solely developed by the People's Republic of China.
↑ Appavoo, Jonathan; Uhlig, Volkmar; Waterland, Amos. "Project Kittyhawk: Building a Global-Scale Computer"(PDF). Yorktown Heights, NY: IBM T.J. Watson Research Center. Archived from the original on 2008-10-31. Retrieved 2018-03-13.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
↑ "IBM announces 20-petaflops supercomputer". Kurzweil. 18 November 2011. Retrieved 13 November 2012. IBM has announced the Blue Gene/Q supercomputer, with peak performance of 20 petaflops
↑ S. Habib; V. Morozov; H. Finkel; A. Pope; K. Heitmann; K. Kumaran; T. Peterka; J. Insley; D. Daniel; P. Fasel; N. Frontiere & Z. Lukic (2012). "The Universe at Extreme Scale: Multi-Petaflop Sky Simulation on the BG/Q". arXiv:1211.4864 [cs.DC].
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